Phdwiki - User contributions [en]

User:John S. Treu

2015-10-23T23:14:49Z

Michael Thomas:

{{PhdPrepUserPage|1=[[Image:John Treu.jpg|John Treu|150px]]|2=[http://appsrv.pace.edu/lubin/faculty/departments/showFacultyDetail.cfm?Name=JohnTreu '''Faculty Website''']|3=[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=2439794 '''SSRN Website''']}}

['''Individual Accounting Research Ranking''']

Professor Treu is an assistant professor in the Department of Legal Studies and Taxation at the Lubin School of Business at Pace University. His research interests include archival tax, the regulation of tax preparers, and trust law. Professor Treu is licensed as both an attorney and a C.P.A. with bar admissions in Washington D.C., Maryland, and Utah. Professor Treu completed an LL.M. degree in taxation from New York University School of Law (2013), a J.D. degree from the University of Utah (2007), and a B.S. degree in accounting from Brigham Young University (2004). Professor Treu worked as a tax and business law attorney in Washington D.C. and Salt Lake City for approximately five years. He also practiced as a tax associate at Deloitte & Touche, LLP.

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File:John Treu.jpg

2015-10-23T19:36:59Z

Michael Thomas:

What is accounting research?

2015-09-10T16:12:11Z

Michael Thomas: /* Tax */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For an example see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For an example see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For an example see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For an example see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For an example see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])
*For an example see Kadous, Magro, and Spilker (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1062181 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

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What is accounting research?

2015-09-10T16:11:28Z

Michael Thomas: /* Managerial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For an example see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For an example see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For an example see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax research see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])
*For an example of a experimental tax research see Kadous, Magro, and Spilker (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1062181 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
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What is accounting research?

2015-09-10T16:10:45Z

Michael Thomas: /* Financial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For an example see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For an example see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example of archival research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax research see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])
*For an example of a experimental tax research see Kadous, Magro, and Spilker (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1062181 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
|}

What is accounting research?

2015-09-10T16:10:05Z

Michael Thomas: /* Auditing */

{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; color:black; width:45em; max-width: 25%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" |
<videoflash>bSxHph5ZdLc|400|350|</videoflash>
|-
| style="text-align: left;" |
|}
==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For an example see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example of archival research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax research see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])
*For an example of a experimental tax research see Kadous, Magro, and Spilker (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1062181 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
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! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
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What is accounting research?

2015-09-10T16:09:28Z

Michael Thomas: /* Accounting Information Systems (AIS) */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example of archival research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax research see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])
*For an example of a experimental tax research see Kadous, Magro, and Spilker (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1062181 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
|}

What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T17:33:51Z

Michael Thomas: /* Tax */

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| style="text-align: left;" |
<videoflash>bSxHph5ZdLc|400|350|</videoflash>
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| style="text-align: left;" |
|}
==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example of archival research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax research see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])
*For an example of a experimental tax research see Kadous, Magro, and Spilker (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1062181 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

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What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T17:33:08Z

Michael Thomas: /* Financial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example of archival research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax research see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])
*For an example of a experimental tax research see Kadous, Magro, and Spilker (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1062181 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
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What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T17:25:36Z

Michael Thomas: /* Auditing */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example of archival research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax research see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])
*For an example of a experimental tax research see Kadous, Magro, and Spilker (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1062181 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
|}

What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T17:24:44Z

Michael Thomas: /* Tax */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example of archival research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax research see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])
*For an example of a experimental tax research see Kadous, Magro, and Spilker (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1062181 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

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{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
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What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T17:09:56Z

Michael Thomas: /* Tax */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example of archival research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax research see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
|}

What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T16:58:06Z

Michael Thomas: /* Managerial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of experimental research in Managerial Accounting see Bol, and Smith (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1427584 here])
*For an example of archival research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax lobbying see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

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What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T16:53:57Z

Michael Thomas: /* Financial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Christensen, Drake, and Thornock (2012, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1398842 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental ethics research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of archival decision-making research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax lobbying see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
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What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T16:50:46Z

Michael Thomas: /* Financial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental financial research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival financial research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental ethics research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of archival decision-making research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax lobbying see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
|}

What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T16:45:16Z

Michael Thomas: /* Auditing */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For an example of archival financial reporting research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For an example of capital markets research in accounting see Healy, and Palepu (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258514 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival empirical research on accounting choice see Bamber, Jiang, and Wang (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312904 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental ethics research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of archival decision-making research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax lobbying see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

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What is accounting research?

2015-08-28T16:42:19Z

Michael Thomas: /* Accounting Information Systems (AIS) */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of experimental AIS research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental AIS research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of audit fee research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For an example of archival financial reporting research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For an example of capital markets research in accounting see Healy, and Palepu (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258514 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival empirical research on accounting choice see Bamber, Jiang, and Wang (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312904 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental ethics research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of archival decision-making research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax lobbying see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

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Top ranked accounting journals

2015-08-27T22:14:39Z

Michael Thomas: /* Top 3 Accounting Journals */

==General Consensus of Accounting Journal Rankings==
===Top 3 Accounting Journals===
Every accounting school considers these journals as "A" hits. These are the consensus top journals in the discipline.

* The Accounting Review (TAR)
** Click [http://aaahq.org/Research/AAA-Journals/The-Accounting-Review here] for submission information.
** The broadest of the top three journals. TAR publishes financial, managerial, audit, and tax research using archival, behavioral, and analytical research designs. Unlike JAR and JAE, editors at TAR use two referees to evaluate each submission.
* Journal of Accounting Research (JAR)
** Click [http://research.chicagobooth.edu/arc/journal-of-accounting-research here] for submission information.
** Published by the Institute for Professional Accounting at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business.
* Journal of Accounting and Economics (JAE)
** Click [http://www.elsevier.com/journals/journal-of-accounting-and-economics/0165-4101/guide-for-authors here] for submission information.

===Next 3 Best Journals===
Some schools consider these journals as "A" hits and some consider them as "A-" hits. They are generally favorably viewed by all schools.

* Contemporary Accounting Research (CAR)
* Review of Accounting Studies (RAST)
* Accounting, Organisations and Society (AOS)

==Individual School Journal Rankings==
* [http://guides.lib.byu.edu/content.php?pid=50710&sid=436774 Brigham Young University]
* [[Indiana University Journal Rankings]]
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Top ranked accounting journals

2015-08-27T22:14:00Z

Michael Thomas: /* Top 3 Accounting Journals */

==General Consensus of Accounting Journal Rankings==
===Top 3 Accounting Journals===
Every accounting school considers these journals as "A" hits. These are the consensus top journals in the discipline.

* The Accounting Review (TAR)
** Click [http://aaahq.org/Research/AAA-Journals/The-Accounting-Review here] for submission information.
** The broadest of the top three journals. TAR publishes financial, managerial, audit, and tax research using archival, behavioral, and analytical research designs. Unlike JAR and JAE, editors at TAR use two referees to evaluate each submission.
* Journal of Accounting Research (JAR)
** Click [http://research.chicagobooth.edu/arc/journal-of-accounting-research here] for submission information.
** Published by the Institute for Professional Accounting at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business.
* Journal of Accounting and Economics (JAE)
** Click [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/505556/authorinstructions here] for submission information.

===Next 3 Best Journals===
Some schools consider these journals as "A" hits and some consider them as "A-" hits. They are generally favorably viewed by all schools.

* Contemporary Accounting Research (CAR)
* Review of Accounting Studies (RAST)
* Accounting, Organisations and Society (AOS)

==Individual School Journal Rankings==
* [http://guides.lib.byu.edu/content.php?pid=50710&sid=436774 Brigham Young University]
* [[Indiana University Journal Rankings]]
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Top ranked accounting journals

2015-08-27T22:13:13Z

Michael Thomas: /* Top 3 Accounting Journals */

==General Consensus of Accounting Journal Rankings==
===Top 3 Accounting Journals===
Every accounting school considers these journals as "A" hits. These are the consensus top journals in the discipline.

* The Accounting Review (TAR)
** Click [http://aaahq.org/Research/AAA-Journals/The-Accounting-Review here] for submission information.
** The broadest of the top three journals. TAR publishes financial, managerial, audit, and tax research using archival, behavioral, and analytical research designs. Unlike JAR and JAE, editors at TAR use two referees to evaluate each submission.
* Journal of Accounting Research (JAR)
** Click [http://services.bepress.com/jar/ here] for submission information.
** Published by the Institute for Professional Accounting at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business.
* Journal of Accounting and Economics (JAE)
** Click [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/505556/authorinstructions here] for submission information.

===Next 3 Best Journals===
Some schools consider these journals as "A" hits and some consider them as "A-" hits. They are generally favorably viewed by all schools.

* Contemporary Accounting Research (CAR)
* Review of Accounting Studies (RAST)
* Accounting, Organisations and Society (AOS)

==Individual School Journal Rankings==
* [http://guides.lib.byu.edu/content.php?pid=50710&sid=436774 Brigham Young University]
* [[Indiana University Journal Rankings]]
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Teaching and Service

2015-08-27T22:05:56Z

Michael Thomas:

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|-
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* [[How to ask good questions in workshop]]
* [[How important is discussing papers and being a moderator at conferences?]]
* [[What conferences are the best to attend?]]
* [[What is a Ph.D. seminar really like, and how can I prepare?]]

|-align="left"
! style="background:#001E4D; color:white; height: 30px" | Teaching
|-
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* [[Accounting Humor]] - Great for the classroom
* [[Accounting Quotes]] - Great for the classroom
* [[Recommended Books]]
* [http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/teachtip.htm#motivating Teaching Tips] - The University of Hawaii has created a extensive guidebook to help improve teaching. Some of the tips listed cover topics such as designing courses, improving teaching techniques, teaching using questions, spotting plagiarism, and avoiding stress.
* [http://www.freeloadpress.com Freeload Press] provides free textbooks for students. Textbooks could be used for a course or alternatively as a test bank of ideas for homework, quizzes, or tests.
* [[General Teaching Issues]]

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__NOTOC__

Accounting Humor

2015-08-27T22:02:49Z

Michael Thomas: /* Links */

== Comics ==
* [[Image:PorkandBeans.jpg]]

* [[Image:Big5.jpg]]

* [[Image:Comic.gif]]

* [[Image:ChristmasAccountants.gif]]

* [[Image:TaxComic.gif]]

* [[Image:Accountingleader.jpg]]

* [[Image:SprintPCS.jpg |400 px|Enron Comic]]

== General Humor ==
* [http://www.despair.com/viewall.html Funny posters] that are a spoof on motivational posters.

== Jokes ==
This is a [http://www.tuckprofit.com/0611_vol2_iss3/0611famafrench.htm very funny article] about Ken French.

Q: Why do accountants become accountants?
A: Because they fail the personality test to become a mortician.

You Might Be An Accountant If...
* You refer to your child as Deduction 214
* You deduct Ex-lax as "moving expenses"
* You have no idea that GAP is also a clothing store
* Getting to sleep is an exciting event that you look forward to all day long
* Your idea of thrashing your hotel room is refusing to fill out the guest comment card
* You are doing it now because you checked the file and found that you did it last year
* You decide to change your name to a symbol and you choose the double underline "========"

== Videos ==
* Seinfeld accounting joke.

<center><videoflash>ekp9dmXM7Qs</videoflash></center>

* [http://videos.sapo.pt/PIfBsz5rVzrVGyU6N4WW Clip] from the Simpsons about the Enron Ride of Broken Dreams.

==Links==
* [http://www.groco.com/readingroom/humor.aspx Greenstein, Rogoff, Olsen, & Co.] - This San Francisco-based CPA firm has a great list of one-liners, David Letterman top tens, and other stories.

__NOTOC__
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Accounting Humor

2015-08-27T22:02:14Z

Michael Thomas: /* Videos */

== Comics ==
* [[Image:PorkandBeans.jpg]]

* [[Image:Big5.jpg]]

* [[Image:Comic.gif]]

* [[Image:ChristmasAccountants.gif]]

* [[Image:TaxComic.gif]]

* [[Image:Accountingleader.jpg]]

* [[Image:SprintPCS.jpg |400 px|Enron Comic]]

== General Humor ==
* [http://www.despair.com/viewall.html Funny posters] that are a spoof on motivational posters.

== Jokes ==
This is a [http://www.tuckprofit.com/0611_vol2_iss3/0611famafrench.htm very funny article] about Ken French.

Q: Why do accountants become accountants?
A: Because they fail the personality test to become a mortician.

You Might Be An Accountant If...
* You refer to your child as Deduction 214
* You deduct Ex-lax as "moving expenses"
* You have no idea that GAP is also a clothing store
* Getting to sleep is an exciting event that you look forward to all day long
* Your idea of thrashing your hotel room is refusing to fill out the guest comment card
* You are doing it now because you checked the file and found that you did it last year
* You decide to change your name to a symbol and you choose the double underline "========"

== Videos ==
* Seinfeld accounting joke.

<center><videoflash>ekp9dmXM7Qs</videoflash></center>

* [http://videos.sapo.pt/PIfBsz5rVzrVGyU6N4WW Clip] from the Simpsons about the Enron Ride of Broken Dreams.

==Links==
* [http://www.groco.com/readingroom/humor.aspx Greenstein, Rogoff, Olsen, & Co.] - This San Francisco-based CPA firm has a great list of one-liners, David Letterman top tens, and other stories.
* [http://www.moormanharting.com/humor.htm Moorman Harting Financial Services] - This Ohio-based CPA firm has several one-liners and offers perplexing insights on tax preparation, such as, "Have you ever wondered why people are quick to brag about their income, but refuse to list it all on their income tax?"
* [http://www.taxhelp.net/AccountingHumor_000.htm Tax Help LP] - This site for a Texan CPA has several short stories and comics. One comic includes two mosquitoes about to dig in and one comments, "Sure, I believe in reincarnation--in my previous life I was an IRS agent."

__NOTOC__
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What conferences are the best to attend?

2015-08-27T21:50:28Z

Michael Thomas:

Accounting research conferences provide academics with many opportunities. Submitting an article to a conference provides authors with a chance to obtain valuable feedback from many other academics. At some conferences sponsered by some journals, articles that are accepted into a conference are almost guaranteed an acceptance at that journal. During a conference, academic have many opportunities to meet others and build their network.

In my experience the best conferences to attend are the following:

*AAA annual meeting (great for connecting with almost everyone).

*AAA section meetings (for me the FARS and International Section meetings have been useful)

*Journal conferences such as:JAE, JAR, JAAF, JBFA, RAST, CAR, etc. This are by invitation so to get invited you may need to submit papers or lobby with some people you know who go to these conferences. Great way to network and get feedback on your research.

Here is some information on these conferences:

* Information about the '''Journal of Accounting Research Conference''' can be found [http://research.chicagobooth.edu/arc/journal-of-accounting-research/jar-annual-conference here]. The JAR conference is held each year in May at the Gleacher Center, The University of Chicago's downtown classroom building and conference center. It is an invitation only conference.
* Information about the '''Contemporary Accounting Research Conference ''' can be found [https://www.caaa.ca/ConferencesandCalls/CARConferences/CARConf2015/index.html#.Vd-FcPZViko here]. The CAR conference is held in the fall of each year at various locations in Canada. It is an invitation only conference.
*Information about the '''Journal of Accounting and Economics Conference''' can be found [https://accounting.wharton.upenn.edu/jae2015/ here]. The JAE conference is held each fall at various locations (most recently at Rochester University). It is an invitation only conference.
* Information about the '''Review of Accounting Studies Conference''' can be found [http://www.sauder.ubc.ca/Faculty/Divisions/Accounting/RAST/Conferences here]. The RAST conference is held each fall at various locations (most recently at Duke University). It is an invitation only conference.
* The Journal of Accounting, Auditing, and Finance (JAAF) conference is held each year in New York and is sponsored by NYU. It is an invitation only conference.

International conferences are also very good. The best being the European Accounting Conference (annually) and the IAAER world conferences (every two years).
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What conferences are the best to attend?

2015-08-27T21:50:10Z

Michael Thomas:

Accounting research conferences provide academics with many opportunities. Submitting an article to a conference provides authors with a chance to obtain valuable feedback from many other academics. At some conferences sponsered by some journals, articles that are accepted into a conference are almost guaranteed an acceptance at that journal. During a conference, academic have many opportunities to meet others and build their network.

In my experience the best conferences to attend are the following:

*AAA annual meeting (great for connecting with almost everyone).

*AAA section meetings (for me the FARS and International Section meetings have been useful)

*Journal conferences such as:JAE, JAR, JAAF, JBFA, RAST, CAR, etc. This are by invitation so to get invited you may need to submit papers or lobby with some people you know who go to these conferences. Great way to network and get feedback on your research.

Here is some information on these conferences:

* Information about the '''Journal of Accounting Research Conference''' can be found [http://research.chicagobooth.edu/arc/journal-of-accounting-research/jar-annual-conference here]. The JAR conference is held each year in May at the Gleacher Center, The University of Chicago's downtown classroom building and conference center. It is an invitation only conference.
* Information about the '''Contemporary Accounting Research Conference ''' can be found [https://www.caaa.ca/ConferencesandCalls/CARConferences/CARConf2015/index.html#.Vd-FcPZViko here]. The CAR conference is held in the fall of each year at various locations in Canada. It is an invitation only conference.
*Information about the '''Journal of Accounting and Economics Conference''' can be found https://accounting.wharton.upenn.edu/jae2015/ here]. The JAE conference is held each fall at various locations (most recently at Rochester University). It is an invitation only conference.
* Information about the '''Review of Accounting Studies Conference''' can be found [http://www.sauder.ubc.ca/Faculty/Divisions/Accounting/RAST/Conferences here]. The RAST conference is held each fall at various locations (most recently at Duke University). It is an invitation only conference.
* The Journal of Accounting, Auditing, and Finance (JAAF) conference is held each year in New York and is sponsored by NYU. It is an invitation only conference.

International conferences are also very good. The best being the European Accounting Conference (annually) and the IAAER world conferences (every two years).
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How do I get into a research intensive PhD program?

2015-08-27T21:43:08Z

Michael Thomas:

* Study for the [[The GMAT|GMAT]] and get a good score. At "top" schools, most students will have a [[The GMAT|GMAT]] score of 700 or above with a minimum of 600. (However, the [[The GMAT|GMAT]] is just one factor in your [[Applying to a Ph.D. Program|application]].)

* Take your Ph.D. Prep Track courses seriously and learn as much as possible.

* Get research going with faculty. Take your ideas to them and take initiative so you have the opportunity to have co-authored work in progress.

* Seek the advice of [[BYU Alumni and Friends|current professors and doctoral students]] so you know which schools you should apply to.

* Apply to [[Applying to a Ph.D. Program#Selecting the Right Program|programs that fit]] your needs and interests. This is critical as those Ph.D. prep students who have not finished their Ph.D. did not fit well at the schools where they began studying.

* Your [[Applying to a Ph.D. Program#Statement of Purpose|statement of purpose]] is very important. Make sure you spend a lot of time crafting this document and have several individuals read it and comment on it.

* Get good [[Applying to a Ph.D. Program#Letters of Recommendation|letters of recommendation]]. Although you cannot control what is written about you, you should be professional in your interactions with faculty. A good letter of recommendation can go a long way, and a mediocre letter can shut doors very quickly.

* Consider attending an academic [[What conferences are the best to attend?|conference]] during Fall of your last year in the MAcc. Doing so will allow you to meet the faculty you could be working with at schools, and making a decision to accept you is much easier if the faculty have met you and know that you are into research enough to go to academic conferences. In the 2007-2008 year, I know of two students that attended conferences, who, as a result of going, got into the program they decided to go to.

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What Ph.D. program should I attend?

2015-08-27T21:42:16Z

Michael Thomas:

There are several important factors to consider when deciding which program to attend. The most important factor is to decide what you want to do in your career. Different schools highlight the importance of researching versus teaching. If you have a strong desire to focus on one of those areas, you should go to a Ph.D. program that is strong in the area of your interest. If you want to have a balance of teaching and research, you should consider schools that value a balance between research and teaching. The answer to this question is the most important part of deciding which Ph.D. program is right for you.

Once you have decided what you want to do with your career, then the following suggestions will help you decide where to go.

* Gather as much information about different schools as you can. A good starting point is visiting each school's web page.

* Talk to people who have either been at a school or are currently at the school of interest. See [[University Information]] for help finding who has been where. Please be respectful of the time of the people you are contacting. Ph.D. students and faculty are busy so asking them questions that are already answered on the school's web page is wasting their time. Also, don't send out the same email to multiple people at the same school. Students and faculty talk and it looks bad for you to send out a form e-mail requesting information.

* Consider schools where other BYU students have not gone. Pre Ph.D. students tend to follow a herd mentality and don't give wide consideration to different schools.

* Determine what type of research you are interested in conducting. Certain schools do not support some [[What is accounting research?#Accounting Research Topical Areas|research methodologies]]. Make sure the schools you are considering do what you want to do.

* Consider which [[What is accounting research?#Accounting Research Topical Areas|topical area]] of research you are interested in examining. Do not expect to go to a school and convince professors to change the area of research they are focusing on to work on projects that interest you. You can expect them to continue working on what they find interesting and letting you work with them if they think you will be helpful to them.

After you have gathered information about schools that interest you, you will need to apply to these schools. Hopefully, you will get to visit several schools and find which one fits right. An important warning: while you may be tempted to go to the school other people consider "best," it is far more important that you feel comfortable and like where you will work. Several Ph.D. students have dropped out because they didn't fit with the school. Making sure you fit with the school is far more important than making sure you are at the school others consider the "best."

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What Ph.D. program should I attend?

2015-08-27T21:41:47Z

Michael Thomas:

There are several important factors to consider when deciding which program to attend. The most important factor is to decide what you want to do in your career. Different schools highlight the importance of researching versus teaching. If you have a strong desire to focus on one of those areas, you should go to a Ph.D. program that is strong in the area of your interest. If you want to have a balance of teaching and research, you should consider schools that value a balance between research and teaching. The answer to this question is the most important part of deciding which Ph.D. program is right for you.

Once you have decided what you want to do with your career, then the following suggestions will help you decide where to go.

* Gather as much information about different schools as you can. A good starting point is visiting each school's web page.

* Talk to people who have either been at a school or are currently at the school of interest. See [[University Information]] for help finding who has been where. Please be respectful of the time of the people you are contacting. Ph.D. students and faculty are busy so asking them questions that are already answered on the school's web page is wasting their time. Also, don't send out the same email to multiple people at the same school. Students and faculty talk and it looks bad for you to send out a form e-mail requesting information.

* Consider schools where other BYU students have not gone. Pre Ph.D. students tend to follow a herd mentality and don't give wide consideration to different schools.

* Determine what type of research you are interested in conducting. Certain schools do not support some [[What is accounting research?#Accounting Research Topical Areas|research methodologies]]. Make sure the schools you are considering do what you want to do.

* Consider which [[What is accounting research?#Accounting Research Topical Areas|topical area]] of research you are interested in examining. Do not expect to go to a school and convince professors to change the area of research they are focusing on to work on projects that interest you. You can expect them to continue working on what they find interesting and letting you work with them if they think you will be helpful to them.

After you have gathered information about schools that interest you, you will need to apply to these schools. Hopefully, you will get to visit several schools and find which one fits right. An important warning: while you may be tempted to go to the school other people consider "best," it is far more important that you feel comfortable and like where you will work. Several Ph.D. students have dropped out because they didn't fit with the school. Making sure you fit with the school is far more important than making sure you are at the school others consider the "best."

Also see this external website: [http://www.wharton.upenn.edu/doctoral/admissions/selecting.cfm Am I ready for a PhD Program? And, which program is right for me?]
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The CPA Exam

2015-08-27T21:39:21Z

Michael Thomas: /* How can I study for the CPA without a firm to purchase study materials? */

==Introduction==
The Certified Public Accountant Examination (CPA Exam) is administered to test one's knowledge of accounting and general business practices. Acceptable completion of the CPA Exam bestows the title of Certified Public Accountant (CPA) on the candidate, assuming all other state requirements have been met.

For a discussion on the benefits of a CPA certification in the academic community, click [[Preparing for a Doctoral Program#Should I try and earn the CPA Certification?|here]].

==Exam Content==
Because of planned changes to IFRS for SEC filings, current exam content as of Spring 2009 includes the following sections:

===Auditing and Attestation (AUD)===
The Auditing and Attestation portion lasts 4.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Auditing and Attestation: Engagement Acceptance and Understanding the Assignment (12-16%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Understanding the Entity and Its Environment (including Internal Control) (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Performing Audit Procedures and Evaluating Evidence (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Evaluating Audit Findings, Communications and Reporting (16-20%)
# Accounting and Review Service Engagements (12-16%)
# Professional Responsibilities (including Ethics and Independence) (16-20%)

===Business Environment and Concepts (BEC)===
The Business Environment and Concepts portion lasts 2.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Corporate Governance (16-20%)
# Economic Concepts and Analysis (16-20%)
# Financial Management (19-23%)
# Information Systems and Communication (15-19%)
# Strategic Planning (10-14%)
# Operations Management (12-16%)

===Financial Accounting and Reporting (FAR)===
The Financial Accounting and Reporting portion lasts 4.0 hours. The following five topics are part of this section:
# Conceptual Framework, Standards, Standard Setting and Presentation of Financial Statements (17-23%)
# Financial Statement Accounts: Recognition, Measurement, Valuation, Calculation, Presentation, and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Specific Transactions, Events and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Governmental Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)
# Not-for-Profit (Nongovernmental) Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)

===Regulation (REG)===
The Regulation portion lasts 3.0 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Ethics, Professional and Legal Responsibilities (15-19%)
# Business Law (17-21%)
# Federal Tax Process, Procedures, Accounting and Planning (11-15%)
# Federal Taxation of Property Transactions (12-16%)
# Federal Taxation of Individuals (13-19%)
# Federal Taxation of Entities (18-24%)

==FAQ==
In addition to the following questions, which are geared towards future academics, the AICPA also answers some [http://www.aicpa.org/BecomeACPA/FAQs/Pages/FAQs.aspx Frequently Asked Questions] regarding the CPA exam and the CPA credential. The official web page for the Uniform CPA Exam also answers many [http://www.cpa-exam.org/cpa/computer_faqs.html Frequently Asked Questions] about the exam itself.

===What resources are available to help me review for the CPA exam?===
* [http://www.beckercpa.com/ Becker CPA Review] is generally considered to be the best CPA review course. Most students who use Becker choose the in-class instruction option, which provides course manuals, offers in-class instruction several nights each week, and assigns homework for each class. This method is purported to have a very high success rate; however, it is also very expensive.
* [http://www.wiley.com/cpa Wiley CPA Exam Review] is not quite as structured as Becker, perhaps, but it is much cheaper and is sufficient. If you've done relatively well in your courses at BYU, this should be enough to help you pass the exam. Though, additional material is on the CPA exam that is not covered in BYU's accounting program. In particular, accounting for non-profits and governmental entities on the exam but is not taught at BYU.

===Where can I find information about the CPA exam requirements for each state?===
The [http://www.beckercpa.com/state/index.cfm Becker CPA Review] website has a comprehensive listing of the CPA requirements for each state.

Additionally, you could try the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy [http://nasba.org/ (NASBA)]. While they possess all the information you would ever need, accessing the information is difficult. Each state has a NASBA representative assigned to it, and the helpfulness of the representatives varies wildly by state.

===How can I be a CPA without any work experience?===
There is a difference between passing the CPA exam, receiving certification, and meeting the necessary requirements for licensing and public practice. In most states, once you meet the minimum degree and course requirements, you can sit for the CPA exam. After this point, most states require those who pass the exam to meet certain work requirements before they can receive a certificate showing that they passed the exam. This requirement is met by crossing one of two thresholds, either (1) working a specified minimum number of hours or (2) working in professional practice for a certain number of years after finishing your degree. Each state sets its own requirements for certification.

Additionally, some states require that certified professionals receive more experience beyond the aforementioned requirements before they receive a license to practice.

Though, keep in mind that some states do not have experience requirements for certification or licensing to practice; e.g., Colorado, Florida, Maryland, and Puerto Rico. Others allow substitution of additional education for experience.

===How can I study for the CPA without a firm to purchase study materials?===
Without proper study materials, taking and passing the CPA exam may be difficult. In addition to buying the materials, there are many different ways to obtain study materials. Several options are available to the diligent seeker.

* [http://www.financialprep.com/ Financialprep.com] offers a free trial version of their practice test software, which contains 100 questions per section. 100 questions is sufficient to give one a general sense of how the questions on the test are.

* If you are currently a doctoral student, you may approach one of the companies that provides CPA study material. They sometimes give free copies to future professors. Contact the representative who services your school to discuss this possibility.

* Becker has several ways in which to get free or discounted materials. If you work as the one campus representative for BYU, then you can get a Becker course for free. Dr. Black has something to do with the selection process for campus representatives. Further, you can help set up the classroom for the classroom reviews Becker does, and they will give you a $500 discount.

* You can purchase hugely discounted Becker (as well as other brands) materials from Amazon.com or eBay.com. The ethicality of this is in question. While the [http://theboard.byu.edu/index.php?area=viewall&id=45241 100 Hour Board] at BYU claimed it was fine and legal, many (especially Becker and other test prep publishers with financial incentives to do so) would tell you it is not.

* Consider borrowing materials from someone who has already taken the test. However, the same ethical issue is involved as in purchasing it from Amazon or eBay.

* Some of the preparation courses are actually reasonably priced, between $300-400. Still a lot for a starving student, but this is a far cry from the $2700 Becker wants.

* The Accounting lab at Utah Valley University has a current, full set of the Gleim materials for use in the lab. You could go over there or somehow petition [http://www.gleim.com/accounting/cpa/ Gleim] to outfit our lab as they have the UVU lab. The BYU library currently has limited materials in its collections.

* You might consider just taking a couple of the sections without studying, and see how it goes. BYU has a very good program and you might find that you pass without much, if any, preparation. Do this at your own risk, as it is somewhat expensive to retake exams. But you might save on prep materials and extra working hours. Though, keep in mind that not all topics on the CPA exam are taught in the courses at BYU.

==External Links==
For additional information, take a look at the following websites:
* [http://www.cpa-exam.org/ The Uniform CPA Exam] - This is the official site for the CPA exam. It has a lot of information about the CPA exam itself. Also, interestingly enough, it contains press bulletins listing passing rates for each of the four portions for the past several quarters (currently about 50%).
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Certified_Public_Accountant_Examination Wikipedia: The CPA Exam] - This is a great resource that describes the actual examination process.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Public_Accountant Wikipedia: Certified Public Accountant] - This resource explains a little bit about what CPA's do. Additionally, it contains links to many international professional accounting organizations.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Certified_Public_Accountants Wikipedia: AICPA] - This site explains some of the basics about the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), which is the professional organization for CPA's in the United States.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_of_State_Boards_of_Accountancy Wikipedia: NASBA] - This site explains some of the basics about the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA), which is the umbrella group of state boards of accountancy.
* [http://www.nasba.org/ NASBA] - The official website for NASBA.
* [http://www.aicpa.org/ AICPA] - The official website for the AICPA.

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[The CPA Exam]]</small>
|}

The CPA Exam

2015-08-27T21:36:36Z

Michael Thomas: /* How can I be a CPA without any work experience? */

==Introduction==
The Certified Public Accountant Examination (CPA Exam) is administered to test one's knowledge of accounting and general business practices. Acceptable completion of the CPA Exam bestows the title of Certified Public Accountant (CPA) on the candidate, assuming all other state requirements have been met.

For a discussion on the benefits of a CPA certification in the academic community, click [[Preparing for a Doctoral Program#Should I try and earn the CPA Certification?|here]].

==Exam Content==
Because of planned changes to IFRS for SEC filings, current exam content as of Spring 2009 includes the following sections:

===Auditing and Attestation (AUD)===
The Auditing and Attestation portion lasts 4.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Auditing and Attestation: Engagement Acceptance and Understanding the Assignment (12-16%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Understanding the Entity and Its Environment (including Internal Control) (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Performing Audit Procedures and Evaluating Evidence (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Evaluating Audit Findings, Communications and Reporting (16-20%)
# Accounting and Review Service Engagements (12-16%)
# Professional Responsibilities (including Ethics and Independence) (16-20%)

===Business Environment and Concepts (BEC)===
The Business Environment and Concepts portion lasts 2.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Corporate Governance (16-20%)
# Economic Concepts and Analysis (16-20%)
# Financial Management (19-23%)
# Information Systems and Communication (15-19%)
# Strategic Planning (10-14%)
# Operations Management (12-16%)

===Financial Accounting and Reporting (FAR)===
The Financial Accounting and Reporting portion lasts 4.0 hours. The following five topics are part of this section:
# Conceptual Framework, Standards, Standard Setting and Presentation of Financial Statements (17-23%)
# Financial Statement Accounts: Recognition, Measurement, Valuation, Calculation, Presentation, and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Specific Transactions, Events and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Governmental Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)
# Not-for-Profit (Nongovernmental) Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)

===Regulation (REG)===
The Regulation portion lasts 3.0 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Ethics, Professional and Legal Responsibilities (15-19%)
# Business Law (17-21%)
# Federal Tax Process, Procedures, Accounting and Planning (11-15%)
# Federal Taxation of Property Transactions (12-16%)
# Federal Taxation of Individuals (13-19%)
# Federal Taxation of Entities (18-24%)

==FAQ==
In addition to the following questions, which are geared towards future academics, the AICPA also answers some [http://www.aicpa.org/BecomeACPA/FAQs/Pages/FAQs.aspx Frequently Asked Questions] regarding the CPA exam and the CPA credential. The official web page for the Uniform CPA Exam also answers many [http://www.cpa-exam.org/cpa/computer_faqs.html Frequently Asked Questions] about the exam itself.

===What resources are available to help me review for the CPA exam?===
* [http://www.beckercpa.com/ Becker CPA Review] is generally considered to be the best CPA review course. Most students who use Becker choose the in-class instruction option, which provides course manuals, offers in-class instruction several nights each week, and assigns homework for each class. This method is purported to have a very high success rate; however, it is also very expensive.
* [http://www.wiley.com/cpa Wiley CPA Exam Review] is not quite as structured as Becker, perhaps, but it is much cheaper and is sufficient. If you've done relatively well in your courses at BYU, this should be enough to help you pass the exam. Though, additional material is on the CPA exam that is not covered in BYU's accounting program. In particular, accounting for non-profits and governmental entities on the exam but is not taught at BYU.

===Where can I find information about the CPA exam requirements for each state?===
The [http://www.beckercpa.com/state/index.cfm Becker CPA Review] website has a comprehensive listing of the CPA requirements for each state.

Additionally, you could try the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy [http://nasba.org/ (NASBA)]. While they possess all the information you would ever need, accessing the information is difficult. Each state has a NASBA representative assigned to it, and the helpfulness of the representatives varies wildly by state.

===How can I be a CPA without any work experience?===
There is a difference between passing the CPA exam, receiving certification, and meeting the necessary requirements for licensing and public practice. In most states, once you meet the minimum degree and course requirements, you can sit for the CPA exam. After this point, most states require those who pass the exam to meet certain work requirements before they can receive a certificate showing that they passed the exam. This requirement is met by crossing one of two thresholds, either (1) working a specified minimum number of hours or (2) working in professional practice for a certain number of years after finishing your degree. Each state sets its own requirements for certification.

Additionally, some states require that certified professionals receive more experience beyond the aforementioned requirements before they receive a license to practice.

Though, keep in mind that some states do not have experience requirements for certification or licensing to practice; e.g., Colorado, Florida, Maryland, and Puerto Rico. Others allow substitution of additional education for experience.

===How can I study for the CPA without a firm to purchase study materials?===
Without proper study materials, taking and passing the CPA exam may be difficult. In addition to buying the materials, there are many different ways to obtain study materials. Several options are available to the diligent seeker.

* [http://www.financialprep.com/ Financialprep.com] offers a free trial version of their practice test software, which contains 100 questions per section. 100 questions is sufficient to give one a general sense of how the questions on the test are.

* If you are currently a doctoral student, you may approach one of the companies that provides CPA study material. They sometimes give free copies to future professors. Contact the representative who services your school to discuss this possibility.

* Becker has several ways in which to get free or discounted materials. If you work as the one campus representative for BYU, then you can get a Becker course for free. Dr. Black has something to do with the selection process for campus representatives. Further, you can help set up the classroom for the classroom reviews Becker does, and they will give you a $500 discount.

* You can purchase hugely discounted Becker (as well as other brands) materials from Amazon.com or eBay.com. The ethicality of this is in question. While the [http://theboard.byu.edu/index.php?area=viewall&id=45241 100 Hour Board] at BYU claimed it was fine and legal, many (especially Becker and other test prep publishers with financial incentives to do so) would tell you it is not.

* Consider borrowing materials from someone who has already taken the test. However, the same ethical issue is involved as in purchasing it from Amazon or eBay.

* Some of the preparation courses are actually reasonably priced, between $300-400. Still a lot for a starving student, but this is a far cry from the $2700 Becker wants. One that has recently worked for a recent Ph.D. Prep student who passed all four sections the first time is the [http://www.wiley.com/cpa.html Wiley CPA] software and books.

* The Accounting lab at Utah Valley University has a current, full set of the Gleim materials for use in the lab. You could go over there or somehow petition [http://www.gleim.com/accounting/cpa/ Gleim] to outfit our lab as they have the UVU lab. The BYU library currently has limited materials in its collections.

* You might consider just taking a couple of the sections without studying, and see how it goes. BYU has a very good program and you might find that you pass without much, if any, preparation. Do this at your own risk, as it is somewhat expensive to retake exams. But you might save on prep materials and extra working hours. Though, keep in mind that not all topics on the CPA exam are taught in the courses at BYU.

==External Links==
For additional information, take a look at the following websites:
* [http://www.cpa-exam.org/ The Uniform CPA Exam] - This is the official site for the CPA exam. It has a lot of information about the CPA exam itself. Also, interestingly enough, it contains press bulletins listing passing rates for each of the four portions for the past several quarters (currently about 50%).
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Certified_Public_Accountant_Examination Wikipedia: The CPA Exam] - This is a great resource that describes the actual examination process.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Public_Accountant Wikipedia: Certified Public Accountant] - This resource explains a little bit about what CPA's do. Additionally, it contains links to many international professional accounting organizations.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Certified_Public_Accountants Wikipedia: AICPA] - This site explains some of the basics about the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), which is the professional organization for CPA's in the United States.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_of_State_Boards_of_Accountancy Wikipedia: NASBA] - This site explains some of the basics about the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA), which is the umbrella group of state boards of accountancy.
* [http://www.nasba.org/ NASBA] - The official website for NASBA.
* [http://www.aicpa.org/ AICPA] - The official website for the AICPA.

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[The CPA Exam]]</small>
|}

The CPA Exam

2015-08-27T21:31:55Z

Michael Thomas: /* Where can I find information about the CPA exam requirements for each state? */

==Introduction==
The Certified Public Accountant Examination (CPA Exam) is administered to test one's knowledge of accounting and general business practices. Acceptable completion of the CPA Exam bestows the title of Certified Public Accountant (CPA) on the candidate, assuming all other state requirements have been met.

For a discussion on the benefits of a CPA certification in the academic community, click [[Preparing for a Doctoral Program#Should I try and earn the CPA Certification?|here]].

==Exam Content==
Because of planned changes to IFRS for SEC filings, current exam content as of Spring 2009 includes the following sections:

===Auditing and Attestation (AUD)===
The Auditing and Attestation portion lasts 4.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Auditing and Attestation: Engagement Acceptance and Understanding the Assignment (12-16%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Understanding the Entity and Its Environment (including Internal Control) (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Performing Audit Procedures and Evaluating Evidence (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Evaluating Audit Findings, Communications and Reporting (16-20%)
# Accounting and Review Service Engagements (12-16%)
# Professional Responsibilities (including Ethics and Independence) (16-20%)

===Business Environment and Concepts (BEC)===
The Business Environment and Concepts portion lasts 2.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Corporate Governance (16-20%)
# Economic Concepts and Analysis (16-20%)
# Financial Management (19-23%)
# Information Systems and Communication (15-19%)
# Strategic Planning (10-14%)
# Operations Management (12-16%)

===Financial Accounting and Reporting (FAR)===
The Financial Accounting and Reporting portion lasts 4.0 hours. The following five topics are part of this section:
# Conceptual Framework, Standards, Standard Setting and Presentation of Financial Statements (17-23%)
# Financial Statement Accounts: Recognition, Measurement, Valuation, Calculation, Presentation, and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Specific Transactions, Events and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Governmental Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)
# Not-for-Profit (Nongovernmental) Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)

===Regulation (REG)===
The Regulation portion lasts 3.0 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Ethics, Professional and Legal Responsibilities (15-19%)
# Business Law (17-21%)
# Federal Tax Process, Procedures, Accounting and Planning (11-15%)
# Federal Taxation of Property Transactions (12-16%)
# Federal Taxation of Individuals (13-19%)
# Federal Taxation of Entities (18-24%)

==FAQ==
In addition to the following questions, which are geared towards future academics, the AICPA also answers some [http://www.aicpa.org/BecomeACPA/FAQs/Pages/FAQs.aspx Frequently Asked Questions] regarding the CPA exam and the CPA credential. The official web page for the Uniform CPA Exam also answers many [http://www.cpa-exam.org/cpa/computer_faqs.html Frequently Asked Questions] about the exam itself.

===What resources are available to help me review for the CPA exam?===
* [http://www.beckercpa.com/ Becker CPA Review] is generally considered to be the best CPA review course. Most students who use Becker choose the in-class instruction option, which provides course manuals, offers in-class instruction several nights each week, and assigns homework for each class. This method is purported to have a very high success rate; however, it is also very expensive.
* [http://www.wiley.com/cpa Wiley CPA Exam Review] is not quite as structured as Becker, perhaps, but it is much cheaper and is sufficient. If you've done relatively well in your courses at BYU, this should be enough to help you pass the exam. Though, additional material is on the CPA exam that is not covered in BYU's accounting program. In particular, accounting for non-profits and governmental entities on the exam but is not taught at BYU.

===Where can I find information about the CPA exam requirements for each state?===
The [http://www.beckercpa.com/state/index.cfm Becker CPA Review] website has a comprehensive listing of the CPA requirements for each state.

Additionally, you could try the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy [http://nasba.org/ (NASBA)]. While they possess all the information you would ever need, accessing the information is difficult. Each state has a NASBA representative assigned to it, and the helpfulness of the representatives varies wildly by state.

===How can I be a CPA without any work experience?===
There is a difference between passing the CPA exam, receiving certification, and meeting the necessary requirements for licensing and public practice. In most states, once you meet the minimum degree and course requirements, you can sit for the CPA exam. After this point, most states require those who pass the exam to meet certain work requirements before they can receive a certificate showing that they passed the exam. This requirement is met by crossing one of two thresholds, either (1) working a specified minimum number of hours or (2) working in professional practice for a certain number of years after finishing your degree. Each state sets its own requirements for certification.

Additionally, some states require that certified professionals receive more experience beyond the aforementioned requirements before they receive a license to practice.

Though, keep in mind that some states do not have experience requirements for certification or licensing to practice; e.g., Colorado, Florida, Maryland, and Puerto Rico. Others allow substitution of additional education for experience. The AICPA has created a [http://www.aicpa.org/download/states/require_pract.pdf document] that compares the educational and experience requirements for each state. Note: The posting date for this comparison is not listed, so always be sure to check with each state's own board of accountancy for current requirements.

===How can I study for the CPA without a firm to purchase study materials?===
Without proper study materials, taking and passing the CPA exam may be difficult. In addition to buying the materials, there are many different ways to obtain study materials. Several options are available to the diligent seeker.

* [http://www.financialprep.com/ Financialprep.com] offers a free trial version of their practice test software, which contains 100 questions per section. 100 questions is sufficient to give one a general sense of how the questions on the test are.

* If you are currently a doctoral student, you may approach one of the companies that provides CPA study material. They sometimes give free copies to future professors. Contact the representative who services your school to discuss this possibility.

* Becker has several ways in which to get free or discounted materials. If you work as the one campus representative for BYU, then you can get a Becker course for free. Dr. Black has something to do with the selection process for campus representatives. Further, you can help set up the classroom for the classroom reviews Becker does, and they will give you a $500 discount.

* You can purchase hugely discounted Becker (as well as other brands) materials from Amazon.com or eBay.com. The ethicality of this is in question. While the [http://theboard.byu.edu/index.php?area=viewall&id=45241 100 Hour Board] at BYU claimed it was fine and legal, many (especially Becker and other test prep publishers with financial incentives to do so) would tell you it is not.

* Consider borrowing materials from someone who has already taken the test. However, the same ethical issue is involved as in purchasing it from Amazon or eBay.

* Some of the preparation courses are actually reasonably priced, between $300-400. Still a lot for a starving student, but this is a far cry from the $2700 Becker wants. One that has recently worked for a recent Ph.D. Prep student who passed all four sections the first time is the [http://www.wiley.com/cpa.html Wiley CPA] software and books.

* The Accounting lab at Utah Valley University has a current, full set of the Gleim materials for use in the lab. You could go over there or somehow petition [http://www.gleim.com/accounting/cpa/ Gleim] to outfit our lab as they have the UVU lab. The BYU library currently has limited materials in its collections.

* You might consider just taking a couple of the sections without studying, and see how it goes. BYU has a very good program and you might find that you pass without much, if any, preparation. Do this at your own risk, as it is somewhat expensive to retake exams. But you might save on prep materials and extra working hours. Though, keep in mind that not all topics on the CPA exam are taught in the courses at BYU.

==External Links==
For additional information, take a look at the following websites:
* [http://www.cpa-exam.org/ The Uniform CPA Exam] - This is the official site for the CPA exam. It has a lot of information about the CPA exam itself. Also, interestingly enough, it contains press bulletins listing passing rates for each of the four portions for the past several quarters (currently about 50%).
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Certified_Public_Accountant_Examination Wikipedia: The CPA Exam] - This is a great resource that describes the actual examination process.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Public_Accountant Wikipedia: Certified Public Accountant] - This resource explains a little bit about what CPA's do. Additionally, it contains links to many international professional accounting organizations.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Certified_Public_Accountants Wikipedia: AICPA] - This site explains some of the basics about the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), which is the professional organization for CPA's in the United States.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_of_State_Boards_of_Accountancy Wikipedia: NASBA] - This site explains some of the basics about the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA), which is the umbrella group of state boards of accountancy.
* [http://www.nasba.org/ NASBA] - The official website for NASBA.
* [http://www.aicpa.org/ AICPA] - The official website for the AICPA.

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[The CPA Exam]]</small>
|}

The CPA Exam

2015-08-27T21:29:17Z

Michael Thomas: /* FAQ */

==Introduction==
The Certified Public Accountant Examination (CPA Exam) is administered to test one's knowledge of accounting and general business practices. Acceptable completion of the CPA Exam bestows the title of Certified Public Accountant (CPA) on the candidate, assuming all other state requirements have been met.

For a discussion on the benefits of a CPA certification in the academic community, click [[Preparing for a Doctoral Program#Should I try and earn the CPA Certification?|here]].

==Exam Content==
Because of planned changes to IFRS for SEC filings, current exam content as of Spring 2009 includes the following sections:

===Auditing and Attestation (AUD)===
The Auditing and Attestation portion lasts 4.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Auditing and Attestation: Engagement Acceptance and Understanding the Assignment (12-16%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Understanding the Entity and Its Environment (including Internal Control) (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Performing Audit Procedures and Evaluating Evidence (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Evaluating Audit Findings, Communications and Reporting (16-20%)
# Accounting and Review Service Engagements (12-16%)
# Professional Responsibilities (including Ethics and Independence) (16-20%)

===Business Environment and Concepts (BEC)===
The Business Environment and Concepts portion lasts 2.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Corporate Governance (16-20%)
# Economic Concepts and Analysis (16-20%)
# Financial Management (19-23%)
# Information Systems and Communication (15-19%)
# Strategic Planning (10-14%)
# Operations Management (12-16%)

===Financial Accounting and Reporting (FAR)===
The Financial Accounting and Reporting portion lasts 4.0 hours. The following five topics are part of this section:
# Conceptual Framework, Standards, Standard Setting and Presentation of Financial Statements (17-23%)
# Financial Statement Accounts: Recognition, Measurement, Valuation, Calculation, Presentation, and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Specific Transactions, Events and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Governmental Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)
# Not-for-Profit (Nongovernmental) Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)

===Regulation (REG)===
The Regulation portion lasts 3.0 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Ethics, Professional and Legal Responsibilities (15-19%)
# Business Law (17-21%)
# Federal Tax Process, Procedures, Accounting and Planning (11-15%)
# Federal Taxation of Property Transactions (12-16%)
# Federal Taxation of Individuals (13-19%)
# Federal Taxation of Entities (18-24%)

==FAQ==
In addition to the following questions, which are geared towards future academics, the AICPA also answers some [http://www.aicpa.org/BecomeACPA/FAQs/Pages/FAQs.aspx Frequently Asked Questions] regarding the CPA exam and the CPA credential. The official web page for the Uniform CPA Exam also answers many [http://www.cpa-exam.org/cpa/computer_faqs.html Frequently Asked Questions] about the exam itself.

===What resources are available to help me review for the CPA exam?===
* [http://www.beckercpa.com/ Becker CPA Review] is generally considered to be the best CPA review course. Most students who use Becker choose the in-class instruction option, which provides course manuals, offers in-class instruction several nights each week, and assigns homework for each class. This method is purported to have a very high success rate; however, it is also very expensive.
* [http://www.wiley.com/cpa Wiley CPA Exam Review] is not quite as structured as Becker, perhaps, but it is much cheaper and is sufficient. If you've done relatively well in your courses at BYU, this should be enough to help you pass the exam. Though, additional material is on the CPA exam that is not covered in BYU's accounting program. In particular, accounting for non-profits and governmental entities on the exam but is not taught at BYU.

===Where can I find information about the CPA exam requirements for each state?===
The [http://www.beckercpa.com/state/index.cfm Becker CPA Review] website has a comprehensive listing of the CPA requirements for each state.

Additionally, you could try the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy [http://nasba.org/nasbaweb/NASBAWeb.nsf/WPHP?OpenForm (NASBA)]. While they possess all the information you would ever need, accessing the information is difficult. Each state has a NASBA representative assigned to it, and the helpfulness of the representatives varies wildly by state.

===How can I be a CPA without any work experience?===
There is a difference between passing the CPA exam, receiving certification, and meeting the necessary requirements for licensing and public practice. In most states, once you meet the minimum degree and course requirements, you can sit for the CPA exam. After this point, most states require those who pass the exam to meet certain work requirements before they can receive a certificate showing that they passed the exam. This requirement is met by crossing one of two thresholds, either (1) working a specified minimum number of hours or (2) working in professional practice for a certain number of years after finishing your degree. Each state sets its own requirements for certification.

Additionally, some states require that certified professionals receive more experience beyond the aforementioned requirements before they receive a license to practice.

Though, keep in mind that some states do not have experience requirements for certification or licensing to practice; e.g., Colorado, Florida, Maryland, and Puerto Rico. Others allow substitution of additional education for experience. The AICPA has created a [http://www.aicpa.org/download/states/require_pract.pdf document] that compares the educational and experience requirements for each state. Note: The posting date for this comparison is not listed, so always be sure to check with each state's own board of accountancy for current requirements.

===How can I study for the CPA without a firm to purchase study materials?===
Without proper study materials, taking and passing the CPA exam may be difficult. In addition to buying the materials, there are many different ways to obtain study materials. Several options are available to the diligent seeker.

* [http://www.financialprep.com/ Financialprep.com] offers a free trial version of their practice test software, which contains 100 questions per section. 100 questions is sufficient to give one a general sense of how the questions on the test are.

* If you are currently a doctoral student, you may approach one of the companies that provides CPA study material. They sometimes give free copies to future professors. Contact the representative who services your school to discuss this possibility.

* Becker has several ways in which to get free or discounted materials. If you work as the one campus representative for BYU, then you can get a Becker course for free. Dr. Black has something to do with the selection process for campus representatives. Further, you can help set up the classroom for the classroom reviews Becker does, and they will give you a $500 discount.

* You can purchase hugely discounted Becker (as well as other brands) materials from Amazon.com or eBay.com. The ethicality of this is in question. While the [http://theboard.byu.edu/index.php?area=viewall&id=45241 100 Hour Board] at BYU claimed it was fine and legal, many (especially Becker and other test prep publishers with financial incentives to do so) would tell you it is not.

* Consider borrowing materials from someone who has already taken the test. However, the same ethical issue is involved as in purchasing it from Amazon or eBay.

* Some of the preparation courses are actually reasonably priced, between $300-400. Still a lot for a starving student, but this is a far cry from the $2700 Becker wants. One that has recently worked for a recent Ph.D. Prep student who passed all four sections the first time is the [http://www.wiley.com/cpa.html Wiley CPA] software and books.

* The Accounting lab at Utah Valley University has a current, full set of the Gleim materials for use in the lab. You could go over there or somehow petition [http://www.gleim.com/accounting/cpa/ Gleim] to outfit our lab as they have the UVU lab. The BYU library currently has limited materials in its collections.

* You might consider just taking a couple of the sections without studying, and see how it goes. BYU has a very good program and you might find that you pass without much, if any, preparation. Do this at your own risk, as it is somewhat expensive to retake exams. But you might save on prep materials and extra working hours. Though, keep in mind that not all topics on the CPA exam are taught in the courses at BYU.

==External Links==
For additional information, take a look at the following websites:
* [http://www.cpa-exam.org/ The Uniform CPA Exam] - This is the official site for the CPA exam. It has a lot of information about the CPA exam itself. Also, interestingly enough, it contains press bulletins listing passing rates for each of the four portions for the past several quarters (currently about 50%).
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Certified_Public_Accountant_Examination Wikipedia: The CPA Exam] - This is a great resource that describes the actual examination process.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Public_Accountant Wikipedia: Certified Public Accountant] - This resource explains a little bit about what CPA's do. Additionally, it contains links to many international professional accounting organizations.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Certified_Public_Accountants Wikipedia: AICPA] - This site explains some of the basics about the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), which is the professional organization for CPA's in the United States.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_of_State_Boards_of_Accountancy Wikipedia: NASBA] - This site explains some of the basics about the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA), which is the umbrella group of state boards of accountancy.
* [http://www.nasba.org/ NASBA] - The official website for NASBA.
* [http://www.aicpa.org/ AICPA] - The official website for the AICPA.

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The CPA Exam

2015-08-27T21:28:21Z

Michael Thomas: /* Introduction */

==Introduction==
The Certified Public Accountant Examination (CPA Exam) is administered to test one's knowledge of accounting and general business practices. Acceptable completion of the CPA Exam bestows the title of Certified Public Accountant (CPA) on the candidate, assuming all other state requirements have been met.

For a discussion on the benefits of a CPA certification in the academic community, click [[Preparing for a Doctoral Program#Should I try and earn the CPA Certification?|here]].

==Exam Content==
Because of planned changes to IFRS for SEC filings, current exam content as of Spring 2009 includes the following sections:

===Auditing and Attestation (AUD)===
The Auditing and Attestation portion lasts 4.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Auditing and Attestation: Engagement Acceptance and Understanding the Assignment (12-16%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Understanding the Entity and Its Environment (including Internal Control) (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Performing Audit Procedures and Evaluating Evidence (16-20%)
# Auditing and Attestation: Evaluating Audit Findings, Communications and Reporting (16-20%)
# Accounting and Review Service Engagements (12-16%)
# Professional Responsibilities (including Ethics and Independence) (16-20%)

===Business Environment and Concepts (BEC)===
The Business Environment and Concepts portion lasts 2.5 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Corporate Governance (16-20%)
# Economic Concepts and Analysis (16-20%)
# Financial Management (19-23%)
# Information Systems and Communication (15-19%)
# Strategic Planning (10-14%)
# Operations Management (12-16%)

===Financial Accounting and Reporting (FAR)===
The Financial Accounting and Reporting portion lasts 4.0 hours. The following five topics are part of this section:
# Conceptual Framework, Standards, Standard Setting and Presentation of Financial Statements (17-23%)
# Financial Statement Accounts: Recognition, Measurement, Valuation, Calculation, Presentation, and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Specific Transactions, Events and Disclosures (27-33%)
# Governmental Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)
# Not-for-Profit (Nongovernmental) Accounting and Reporting (8-12%)

===Regulation (REG)===
The Regulation portion lasts 3.0 hours. The following six topics are part of this section:
# Ethics, Professional and Legal Responsibilities (15-19%)
# Business Law (17-21%)
# Federal Tax Process, Procedures, Accounting and Planning (11-15%)
# Federal Taxation of Property Transactions (12-16%)
# Federal Taxation of Individuals (13-19%)
# Federal Taxation of Entities (18-24%)

==FAQ==
In addition to the following questions, which are geared towards future academics, the AICPA also answers some [http://www.aicpa.org/Becoming+a+CPA/CPA+Candidates+and+Students/Becoming+A+CPA.htm Frequently Asked Questions] regarding the CPA exam and the CPA credential. The official web page for the Uniform CPA Exam also answers many [http://www.cpa-exam.org/cpa/computer_faqs.html Frequently Asked Questions] about the exam itself.

===What resources are available to help me review for the CPA exam?===
* [http://www.beckercpa.com/ Becker CPA Review] is generally considered to be the best CPA review course. Most students who use Becker choose the in-class instruction option, which provides course manuals, offers in-class instruction several nights each week, and assigns homework for each class. This method is purported to have a very high success rate; however, it is also very expensive.
* [http://www.wiley.com/cpa Wiley CPA Exam Review] is not quite as structured as Becker, perhaps, but it is much cheaper and is sufficient. If you've done relatively well in your courses at BYU, this should be enough to help you pass the exam. Though, additional material is on the CPA exam that is not covered in BYU's accounting program. In particular, accounting for non-profits and governmental entities on the exam but is not taught at BYU.

===Where can I find information about the CPA exam requirements for each state?===
The [http://www.beckercpa.com/state/index.cfm Becker CPA Review] website has a comprehensive listing of the CPA requirements for each state.

Additionally, you could try the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy [http://nasba.org/nasbaweb/NASBAWeb.nsf/WPHP?OpenForm (NASBA)]. While they possess all the information you would ever need, accessing the information is difficult. Each state has a NASBA representative assigned to it, and the helpfulness of the representatives varies wildly by state.

===How can I be a CPA without any work experience?===
There is a difference between passing the CPA exam, receiving certification, and meeting the necessary requirements for licensing and public practice. In most states, once you meet the minimum degree and course requirements, you can sit for the CPA exam. After this point, most states require those who pass the exam to meet certain work requirements before they can receive a certificate showing that they passed the exam. This requirement is met by crossing one of two thresholds, either (1) working a specified minimum number of hours or (2) working in professional practice for a certain number of years after finishing your degree. Each state sets its own requirements for certification.

Additionally, some states require that certified professionals receive more experience beyond the aforementioned requirements before they receive a license to practice.

Though, keep in mind that some states do not have experience requirements for certification or licensing to practice; e.g., Colorado, Florida, Maryland, and Puerto Rico. Others allow substitution of additional education for experience. The AICPA has created a [http://www.aicpa.org/download/states/require_pract.pdf document] that compares the educational and experience requirements for each state. Note: The posting date for this comparison is not listed, so always be sure to check with each state's own board of accountancy for current requirements.

===How can I study for the CPA without a firm to purchase study materials?===
Without proper study materials, taking and passing the CPA exam may be difficult. In addition to buying the materials, there are many different ways to obtain study materials. Several options are available to the diligent seeker.

* [http://www.financialprep.com/ Financialprep.com] offers a free trial version of their practice test software, which contains 100 questions per section. 100 questions is sufficient to give one a general sense of how the questions on the test are.

* If you are currently a doctoral student, you may approach one of the companies that provides CPA study material. They sometimes give free copies to future professors. Contact the representative who services your school to discuss this possibility.

* Becker has several ways in which to get free or discounted materials. If you work as the one campus representative for BYU, then you can get a Becker course for free. Dr. Black has something to do with the selection process for campus representatives. Further, you can help set up the classroom for the classroom reviews Becker does, and they will give you a $500 discount.

* You can purchase hugely discounted Becker (as well as other brands) materials from Amazon.com or eBay.com. The ethicality of this is in question. While the [http://theboard.byu.edu/index.php?area=viewall&id=45241 100 Hour Board] at BYU claimed it was fine and legal, many (especially Becker and other test prep publishers with financial incentives to do so) would tell you it is not.

* Consider borrowing materials from someone who has already taken the test. However, the same ethical issue is involved as in purchasing it from Amazon or eBay.

* Some of the preparation courses are actually reasonably priced, between $300-400. Still a lot for a starving student, but this is a far cry from the $2700 Becker wants. One that has recently worked for a recent Ph.D. Prep student who passed all four sections the first time is the [http://www.wiley.com/cpa.html Wiley CPA] software and books.

* The Accounting lab at Utah Valley University has a current, full set of the Gleim materials for use in the lab. You could go over there or somehow petition [http://www.gleim.com/accounting/cpa/ Gleim] to outfit our lab as they have the UVU lab. The BYU library currently has limited materials in its collections.

* You might consider just taking a couple of the sections without studying, and see how it goes. BYU has a very good program and you might find that you pass without much, if any, preparation. Do this at your own risk, as it is somewhat expensive to retake exams. But you might save on prep materials and extra working hours. Though, keep in mind that not all topics on the CPA exam are taught in the courses at BYU.

==External Links==
For additional information, take a look at the following websites:
* [http://www.cpa-exam.org/ The Uniform CPA Exam] - This is the official site for the CPA exam. It has a lot of information about the CPA exam itself. Also, interestingly enough, it contains press bulletins listing passing rates for each of the four portions for the past several quarters (currently about 50%).
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Certified_Public_Accountant_Examination Wikipedia: The CPA Exam] - This is a great resource that describes the actual examination process.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Public_Accountant Wikipedia: Certified Public Accountant] - This resource explains a little bit about what CPA's do. Additionally, it contains links to many international professional accounting organizations.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Certified_Public_Accountants Wikipedia: AICPA] - This site explains some of the basics about the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), which is the professional organization for CPA's in the United States.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_of_State_Boards_of_Accountancy Wikipedia: NASBA] - This site explains some of the basics about the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA), which is the umbrella group of state boards of accountancy.
* [http://www.nasba.org/ NASBA] - The official website for NASBA.
* [http://www.aicpa.org/ AICPA] - The official website for the AICPA.

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|-align="center"
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|}

How do you succeed in a Ph.D. program?

2015-08-27T21:24:18Z

Michael Thomas: /* Other Useful Tips */

(article contributed by [[Porter, Jason |Jason Porter]])

===Introduction===
Success in a Ph.D. program can be broken down into many things, most of which you already know from your work on your undergraduate and masters degrees. The most important element is work, and lots of it. Add to that dedication and perseverance and I think you’ve got the three most important elements for success, especially when you think of success as simply graduating. Other elements might include thinking outside of the box, listening to your instructors, doing your homework and all of the other study skills that you have learned so well by this time in your academic careers.

But success in a Ph.D. program isn’t really measured in terms of simply getting your degree. And, contrary to popular belief, it isn’t really measured in terms of publications or working papers either. True success in a Ph.D. program comes from developing your skills as a researcher and as a teacher. This means both developing the skills to succeed in those areas and developing yourself as an individual, because you can’t succeed in academia without the ability to come up with new ideas and relate to people.

Unfortunately, there is no magic pill you can take that will turn you into a good researcher or a good teacher. It requires lots of work, lots of practice, and lots of mistakes. Even though we don’t like to fail, we learn from our mistakes in ways that no other form of education can teach us. Perhaps that’s why we are born in the first place: to make mistakes in a relatively secure environment so that we can learn and develop. But whether that’s the purpose of life or not, that’s exactly the purpose of a Ph.D. program. You are going to learn a bunch of material and techniques through classes and seminars, and you will have opportunities to practice what you have learned. You’ll make mistakes, lots of them, but that’s okay. Everyone expects Ph.D. students to make mistakes as they slowly learn to do research and to teach. As long as you learn from those mistakes, preferably after only one or two instances, you’re going to eventually succeed, both in the Ph.D. program and in your life as an academic.

With that said, I can’t provide you with a list of all the mistakes you could make and how to avoid them. In all honesty, I wouldn’t provide it even if I could. You wouldn’t get as much from it as actually experiencing it for yourself. What I do want to do, however, if provide you with some ideas for making your life in the Ph.D program easier, to reduce the chances that you will make mistakes that will jeopardize your goal of walking across that stage and being hooded by your advisor.

===Ideas for Making your Ph.D. Program Easier===

'''1. Choose the program that is right for you.'''
The first step is choosing which program you should to attend. The article on [[Applying to a Ph.D. Program#Selecting the Right Program|selecting the right program]] provides a number of important ideas to consider when you begin deciding which Ph.D. programs to apply for. I will add, however, one important factor that I think is missing: Make your decision a matter of prayer. Your choice will have important ramifications for you and your family, so you should get a confirmation that your logical choice is what the Lord wants for you. You will have far fewer problems if you start out in a place the Lord has prepared for you, than if you start somewhere else.

'''2. Study, study, study. '''
Many of us finish up the BYU Ph.D. prep track feeling pretty good about what we have learned. Because of that extra training, it is easy to go into your first set of classes thinking that you already know the material and can coast a little bit as you get started. Unfortunately, that’s not the case. The classes at BYU are undergraduate or master’s level classes; they aren’t at the same level as what you are about to go through. That’s not to imply that they aren’t useful or that they won’t provide you with a good foundation for what you are about to learn, but they are not substitutes for the classes you are about to take. Your program is going to be challenging and rigorous, and you need to hit the ground running. Make it a habit to study right from the very beginning, and you’ll be much better off as you go through that first semester, and certainly as you move on from there.

'''3. Pass your comprehensive exams on the first round.'''
Many Ph.D. students, including me, have the horrible experience of learning that they have failed all or part of their comprehensive exams. Believe me, horrible doesn’t even begin to describe that initial feeling or the work that came with trying to prepare for a second round of tests. It was humiliating and exhausting, to say the least. So, take the time to study carefully and prepare fully. The article [[How do I prepare for comprehensive exams?]] has excellent advice for helping you get through this important test your first time.

That said, if you do mess up, take a deep breath. You can get through it, just like the rest of us did. In retrospect, it was a good experience for me. I think it made me a much more empathetic teacher (since it was my first true academic failure), and it taught me a lot about prayer, inspiration, and humility. I certainly wouldn’t go back and go through it again, but it didn’t end my career either. So, here are some ideas for what to do if you do fail. First, take a few minutes to talk to each of the professors that graded your answers. All of them will give you good advice if you are willing to humble yourself and ask for it. Don’t be confrontational, but be direct and ask good follow-up questions. Second, ask at least one of the senior professors, preferably your chosen advisor or the head of the Ph.D. program, whether the committee was trying to send you a signal about your academic future. Hopefully they will assure that they think you can do it and that you should try again. If not, then it is time to move on. Finally, study like mad! Use the advice the faculty gave you and improve your study techniques and your critical thinking. Try some practice exams, rewrite the questions you failed, read even more extensively than they asked you to read, and create a comprehensive framework that you can jot down when you first walk into that make-up exam. Then you’ll have all the citations you need all ready to go. Make passing the test your top priority, and you’ll be okay.

'''4. Choose a good advisor.'''
Our first, natural reaction is to choose the faculty member whose research interests most closely match what the type of research we want to do. That’s a good strategy, but don’t rely just on that one factor. Believe it or not, but you will spend the next couple of years completely at the mercy of your advisor. You are going to want someone who’s research interests are similar to yours, but you will also want someone with a personality you can work with. You might want to consider talking to someone he or she is currently working with or has worked with in the past. Get a feel for how they treat their students, if they change their mind every time they talk about something, and if they’ll fight for their students’ rights if necessary. Those are important factors to consider. Similarly, does the faculty member provide his or her students with a topic, or let the students come up with their own topics? Both methods have their pros and cons, which you will want to consider before making your choice.

You might also want to consider your prospective advisor’s research agenda and how many students he or she is currently working with. If your advisor is relatively free, he or she will be able to work with you much more closely, and will provide you with feedback more quickly. Several of my friends ended up spending more time at school than I did because their advisor was simply too busy to provide them with immediate feedback. In contrast, at one point, my advisor and I were turning over dissertation chapters multiple times each day right before graduation because she was willing to give me that much time and attention. Because of her help, I was able to finish up in four years, even with some major setbacks after the first year of working on my dissertation.

'''5. Get involved in the Church.'''
When my wife and I moved away from BYU, we were a little nervous about getting into a new ward. However, I think my Church service was the best part of my time in the Ph.D. program. We were living away from the center of the Church, and there were lots of opportunities to serve. No matter how bad my week at school was (and I had some REALLY bad days), I was able to recharge as I made time to serve the Lord. Somehow, the Lord made up for the time I was away from home and school, so I was still able to get done everything I needed and to learn and grow in the gospel. Make sure that it’s an important part of your life so that you will get those important blessings.

'''6. Take time for your family.'''
It is easy to get caught up in the day to day grind of going to school, reading papers, writing down ideas, slogging through data, etc. Add to that a calling, and you have some serious time commitments away from home. But your family life can be your most important anchor as you try to get through school. It can also be a time of enormous growth for you and your eternal companion. The time you spend in your Ph.D. program will be even more successful if you use it to improve your family traditions and relationships. Although you will often feel that you are terribly busy, it is going to get much worse as an assistant professor. Make sure to take the time, while still a student, to devote to your family and to establish traditions that will ensure you still take time once you leave your program and get onto a tenure clock.

'''7. Let yourself go (a little) crazy.'''
While you are working on your course work in the Ph.D. program, you will feel much like you do now. Classes will come and go, you will work hard, and you will feel like things are progressing along nicely. Then you will pass your comprehensive exams and begin to work on your dissertation. That’s when that wonderful feeling of progress will grind to a crushing halt. That’s not meant to discourage you. However, everyone I’ve ever spoken with had stretches during their dissertation work when they felt that nothing was happening. So be prepared for those feelings.

No matter how much you prepare, however, as the first year rolls by and you realize that you have spent a whole year on something that doesn’t seem to be coming together, you will start to feel just a little frustrated. That’s when it is time to do something a little crazy with your time for a while, if only to recharge your circuits. Let me give you some examples. I had one friend who served as a faculty advisor for his old fraternity. It got him out of the business building and let him counsel and work with younger students. He had great stories about the stupid things they were doing, and that kept him on a more even keel while he worked. Another Ph.D. student I knew got so sick of her dissertation that one night she came up with a plan to make her husband a professional golfer. She lined up sponsors, got a corporate credit card, and got him going. I’m not sure how successful he has been, but it served the purpose of giving her something to do that got her away from her dissertation. As for me, well, I wrote a novel. I started it early in the program as a gift for my wife. Money was tight at Christmas, and my wife is an avid reader. So, I started writing her a story, adding a little more to it each Christmas season. Towards the end of my first year working on my dissertation, however, I sort of snapped. So, I got out the book, and I finished it. I spent more time on it than I should have, but it got me away from my dissertation into something I could control, and that was just what I needed.

The bottom line is that you will find a need, somewhere in the middle of writing and researching your dissertation, to do something else. Let yourself branch out a little bit and do something a little nuts. After a while, you will have recharged your batteries and go back to work. You’ll probably find that you actually work harder and smarter after taking a bit of a break than if you just keep pushing. You’ll also find that you have learned some skills and developed some talents that will help you later on in your career and your life.

'''8. Learn to teach.'''
Most of the emphasis in your Ph.D. program will be on researching, but that’s not all there is to being an academic. Many students and new faculty think that the tenure decision is made exclusively, or almost exclusively, on publications, but that is not always the case. At many schools, especially those not in the top tier, your abilities in the classroom will also factor heavily into your promotion and tenure decision. This is especially true with the AACSB’s recent focus on teaching quality, assessment, and ‘closing the loop.’ Colleges and departments going up for ‘maintenance of accreditation’ spend a great deal of time worrying about teaching quality, which makes it all the more important for new, untenured faculty to be at least competent in the classroom.
On top of the accreditation emphasis, teaching can be very rewarding for new faculty members. Notes from students, good teaching evaluations, or visits from prior students can provide you with the positive feedback you need to deal with the often negative feedback from research (rejections, tough reviewer comments, attacks during presentations, etc.). Positive feedback from teaching provides a fortification against those negative vibes and reinforces our original desire to get into academia in the first place.

Hopefully your chosen Ph.D. program will give you the opportunity to teach several classes while you work on your degree. While this teaching will take away time that you would like to spend on your own studies and work, don’t just write it off as wasted time. Instead, take the time to try out new ideas and skills in the classroom. Since most faculty, and even students, at Ph.D. granting institutions expect Ph.D. students to be mediocre teachers at best, they will be more forgiving of your mistakes than will your department chair and students once you become a professor. Most schools have one or two ‘master teachers,’ teachers that are everyone’s favorite despite the workload in their classes. Once you have identified these powerful teachers (who may or may not be tenure track faculty), try to find a way to learn from them. You can try sitting in on their classes or chatting with them about the problems you are having in your teaching. Most good teachers are happy to help you improve your teaching, especially when they notice that you are implementing the hints they have passed on. That’s the real secret: try what they tell you, go back and tell them how it went, and they will open up even more. It can be a very rewarding relationship that will make a world of difference as you work to become a college instructor yourself.

Be careful not to go too far in your teaching practice, however. Trying a few new things and watching your favorite teachers is a good thing. Spending too much time on teaching can slow you down in the process of completing your degree. You don’t want to do that. Take some time to work on your teaching, but make sure that most of your time and effort continues to go into your studies or your research. Learning to teach as a Ph.D. student is rewarding, but teaching for a real salary (after you have finished your degree) is even more rewarding!

'''9. Get to know the faculty and other Ph.D students in and outside your program.'''
There are many benefits to getting to know a lot of people. First, you will have a bigger chance to get on a project in progress if you know the people who are already working on it. Second, when it comes to presenting your papers, people you have developed a relationship with will be more willing to give you constructive feedback. Third, people who know you will be more willing to spread good words about you when you hit the job market. Don't be afraid to reach out. The academic community is very small and reputations can spread quickly.

'''10. Speak up in workshops.'''
Always carrying a good attitude and showing a desire to learn really will get you further than you think. Some international students tend to be more shy and be more quiet during workshop seminars or conferences ( I am no exception), and this is something that they need to work on. A well-rounded Ph.D student is not only hard-working and well-read, but also able to communicate well with others individually and publicly. Trying to be more out-going and participative in workshops or conferences will give people a good impression about you.

'''11. Beware of plagiarism.'''
Nothing ruins your career faster than cheating or plagiarism. There is only black and white in the world of cheating (you either cheat or didn't), but there tends to be some gray area in plagiarism. Be careful when you are working on a paper or a project for a class. You need to give full credit and cite correctly when ideas are taken from a paper or when they are very similar to the ideas of another paper. This is extremely important and should not be taken lightly. You might also get comments and advice from workshop participants who are helpful in making your second or third draft better. In this case, you must acknowledge their help by noting their names in the paper. You might think the person wouldn’t mind if you omitted their name--think again!

===Conclusion===
Life as a Ph.D. student is difficult; it is challenging; it is frustrating. But don’t allow that to keep you from trying or from bringing you down once you have begun. The rewards for completing your program are manifold. Not only will you get to teach and do research (both of which you will hopefully learn to enjoy), but you will also have a comfortable lifestyle, a good salary, and a very flexible schedule. In addition, there is nothing that can compare with that wonderful feeling of standing in front of a full auditorium and listening to your name being read while your advisor ‘hoods you’ and welcomes you into the select group of people who have completed their Ph.D.

The ideas and comments in this article are meant to provide you with some ideas to help you get through your program successfully. They aren’t meant to be a comprehensive list; not by a long shot. Anyone who has completed a Ph.D. has a list of those ideas and methods that worked for him or her, and all of those ideas and thoughts are just as valid as the ideas presented here. Everyone takes a slightly different path to successfully complete their Ph.D. program.

And that brings me to my very last bit of advice. You are beginning your Ph.D. program, make it whatever you want it to be. Learn to teach or focus solely on research; learn to do all sorts of research or just focus on the research that most interests you; start a million papers or just do your dissertation. It is your education, so focus on those things you want to get out of it. And then, as you finish up, find a few new Ph.D. students. Take them out to lunch and give them the ideas and the thoughts that worked for you, tell them how much you have learned and tell them not to get discouraged, build them up with all those things you have learned through your blood, sweat, and tears.

Then, enjoy a few minutes to yourself. Put on those fancy robes that you have now earned the right to wear and parade around in front of the mirror, or spend some time looking at that fancy frame with your degree in it. Better yet, introduce yourself to someone as “Dr. _________.” Other than the voices of your spouse and children, the first time you hear someone call you that will probably be the sweetest thing you have ever heard! And when all is said and done, that is success in a Ph.D. program.

==Other Useful Tips==

This is a question that is asked by every prospective Ph.D. student and there are many sources of advice. The best available advice on the internet is from fields other than accounting, but most of it applies to accounting. A list of helpful links and citations follow:
* [http://orgtheory.wordpress.com/grad-skool-rulz/ Orgtheory.net] has 21 blog posts describing "grad school rulz"
* Getting the Most from Your Doctoral Program: Advice for the Ph.D. Student in Finance, by Frank Alpert and Thomas H. Eyssell, Journal of Financial Education, Fall 1995
* [[How do I prepare for comprehensive exams?]]

----
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|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[How do you succeed in a Ph.D. program?]]</small>
|}

How do you succeed in a Ph.D. program?

2015-08-27T21:22:48Z

Michael Thomas: /* Ideas for Making your Ph.D. Program Easier */

(article contributed by [[Porter, Jason |Jason Porter]])

===Introduction===
Success in a Ph.D. program can be broken down into many things, most of which you already know from your work on your undergraduate and masters degrees. The most important element is work, and lots of it. Add to that dedication and perseverance and I think you’ve got the three most important elements for success, especially when you think of success as simply graduating. Other elements might include thinking outside of the box, listening to your instructors, doing your homework and all of the other study skills that you have learned so well by this time in your academic careers.

But success in a Ph.D. program isn’t really measured in terms of simply getting your degree. And, contrary to popular belief, it isn’t really measured in terms of publications or working papers either. True success in a Ph.D. program comes from developing your skills as a researcher and as a teacher. This means both developing the skills to succeed in those areas and developing yourself as an individual, because you can’t succeed in academia without the ability to come up with new ideas and relate to people.

Unfortunately, there is no magic pill you can take that will turn you into a good researcher or a good teacher. It requires lots of work, lots of practice, and lots of mistakes. Even though we don’t like to fail, we learn from our mistakes in ways that no other form of education can teach us. Perhaps that’s why we are born in the first place: to make mistakes in a relatively secure environment so that we can learn and develop. But whether that’s the purpose of life or not, that’s exactly the purpose of a Ph.D. program. You are going to learn a bunch of material and techniques through classes and seminars, and you will have opportunities to practice what you have learned. You’ll make mistakes, lots of them, but that’s okay. Everyone expects Ph.D. students to make mistakes as they slowly learn to do research and to teach. As long as you learn from those mistakes, preferably after only one or two instances, you’re going to eventually succeed, both in the Ph.D. program and in your life as an academic.

With that said, I can’t provide you with a list of all the mistakes you could make and how to avoid them. In all honesty, I wouldn’t provide it even if I could. You wouldn’t get as much from it as actually experiencing it for yourself. What I do want to do, however, if provide you with some ideas for making your life in the Ph.D program easier, to reduce the chances that you will make mistakes that will jeopardize your goal of walking across that stage and being hooded by your advisor.

===Ideas for Making your Ph.D. Program Easier===

'''1. Choose the program that is right for you.'''
The first step is choosing which program you should to attend. The article on [[Applying to a Ph.D. Program#Selecting the Right Program|selecting the right program]] provides a number of important ideas to consider when you begin deciding which Ph.D. programs to apply for. I will add, however, one important factor that I think is missing: Make your decision a matter of prayer. Your choice will have important ramifications for you and your family, so you should get a confirmation that your logical choice is what the Lord wants for you. You will have far fewer problems if you start out in a place the Lord has prepared for you, than if you start somewhere else.

'''2. Study, study, study. '''
Many of us finish up the BYU Ph.D. prep track feeling pretty good about what we have learned. Because of that extra training, it is easy to go into your first set of classes thinking that you already know the material and can coast a little bit as you get started. Unfortunately, that’s not the case. The classes at BYU are undergraduate or master’s level classes; they aren’t at the same level as what you are about to go through. That’s not to imply that they aren’t useful or that they won’t provide you with a good foundation for what you are about to learn, but they are not substitutes for the classes you are about to take. Your program is going to be challenging and rigorous, and you need to hit the ground running. Make it a habit to study right from the very beginning, and you’ll be much better off as you go through that first semester, and certainly as you move on from there.

'''3. Pass your comprehensive exams on the first round.'''
Many Ph.D. students, including me, have the horrible experience of learning that they have failed all or part of their comprehensive exams. Believe me, horrible doesn’t even begin to describe that initial feeling or the work that came with trying to prepare for a second round of tests. It was humiliating and exhausting, to say the least. So, take the time to study carefully and prepare fully. The article [[How do I prepare for comprehensive exams?]] has excellent advice for helping you get through this important test your first time.

That said, if you do mess up, take a deep breath. You can get through it, just like the rest of us did. In retrospect, it was a good experience for me. I think it made me a much more empathetic teacher (since it was my first true academic failure), and it taught me a lot about prayer, inspiration, and humility. I certainly wouldn’t go back and go through it again, but it didn’t end my career either. So, here are some ideas for what to do if you do fail. First, take a few minutes to talk to each of the professors that graded your answers. All of them will give you good advice if you are willing to humble yourself and ask for it. Don’t be confrontational, but be direct and ask good follow-up questions. Second, ask at least one of the senior professors, preferably your chosen advisor or the head of the Ph.D. program, whether the committee was trying to send you a signal about your academic future. Hopefully they will assure that they think you can do it and that you should try again. If not, then it is time to move on. Finally, study like mad! Use the advice the faculty gave you and improve your study techniques and your critical thinking. Try some practice exams, rewrite the questions you failed, read even more extensively than they asked you to read, and create a comprehensive framework that you can jot down when you first walk into that make-up exam. Then you’ll have all the citations you need all ready to go. Make passing the test your top priority, and you’ll be okay.

'''4. Choose a good advisor.'''
Our first, natural reaction is to choose the faculty member whose research interests most closely match what the type of research we want to do. That’s a good strategy, but don’t rely just on that one factor. Believe it or not, but you will spend the next couple of years completely at the mercy of your advisor. You are going to want someone who’s research interests are similar to yours, but you will also want someone with a personality you can work with. You might want to consider talking to someone he or she is currently working with or has worked with in the past. Get a feel for how they treat their students, if they change their mind every time they talk about something, and if they’ll fight for their students’ rights if necessary. Those are important factors to consider. Similarly, does the faculty member provide his or her students with a topic, or let the students come up with their own topics? Both methods have their pros and cons, which you will want to consider before making your choice.

You might also want to consider your prospective advisor’s research agenda and how many students he or she is currently working with. If your advisor is relatively free, he or she will be able to work with you much more closely, and will provide you with feedback more quickly. Several of my friends ended up spending more time at school than I did because their advisor was simply too busy to provide them with immediate feedback. In contrast, at one point, my advisor and I were turning over dissertation chapters multiple times each day right before graduation because she was willing to give me that much time and attention. Because of her help, I was able to finish up in four years, even with some major setbacks after the first year of working on my dissertation.

'''5. Get involved in the Church.'''
When my wife and I moved away from BYU, we were a little nervous about getting into a new ward. However, I think my Church service was the best part of my time in the Ph.D. program. We were living away from the center of the Church, and there were lots of opportunities to serve. No matter how bad my week at school was (and I had some REALLY bad days), I was able to recharge as I made time to serve the Lord. Somehow, the Lord made up for the time I was away from home and school, so I was still able to get done everything I needed and to learn and grow in the gospel. Make sure that it’s an important part of your life so that you will get those important blessings.

'''6. Take time for your family.'''
It is easy to get caught up in the day to day grind of going to school, reading papers, writing down ideas, slogging through data, etc. Add to that a calling, and you have some serious time commitments away from home. But your family life can be your most important anchor as you try to get through school. It can also be a time of enormous growth for you and your eternal companion. The time you spend in your Ph.D. program will be even more successful if you use it to improve your family traditions and relationships. Although you will often feel that you are terribly busy, it is going to get much worse as an assistant professor. Make sure to take the time, while still a student, to devote to your family and to establish traditions that will ensure you still take time once you leave your program and get onto a tenure clock.

'''7. Let yourself go (a little) crazy.'''
While you are working on your course work in the Ph.D. program, you will feel much like you do now. Classes will come and go, you will work hard, and you will feel like things are progressing along nicely. Then you will pass your comprehensive exams and begin to work on your dissertation. That’s when that wonderful feeling of progress will grind to a crushing halt. That’s not meant to discourage you. However, everyone I’ve ever spoken with had stretches during their dissertation work when they felt that nothing was happening. So be prepared for those feelings.

No matter how much you prepare, however, as the first year rolls by and you realize that you have spent a whole year on something that doesn’t seem to be coming together, you will start to feel just a little frustrated. That’s when it is time to do something a little crazy with your time for a while, if only to recharge your circuits. Let me give you some examples. I had one friend who served as a faculty advisor for his old fraternity. It got him out of the business building and let him counsel and work with younger students. He had great stories about the stupid things they were doing, and that kept him on a more even keel while he worked. Another Ph.D. student I knew got so sick of her dissertation that one night she came up with a plan to make her husband a professional golfer. She lined up sponsors, got a corporate credit card, and got him going. I’m not sure how successful he has been, but it served the purpose of giving her something to do that got her away from her dissertation. As for me, well, I wrote a novel. I started it early in the program as a gift for my wife. Money was tight at Christmas, and my wife is an avid reader. So, I started writing her a story, adding a little more to it each Christmas season. Towards the end of my first year working on my dissertation, however, I sort of snapped. So, I got out the book, and I finished it. I spent more time on it than I should have, but it got me away from my dissertation into something I could control, and that was just what I needed.

The bottom line is that you will find a need, somewhere in the middle of writing and researching your dissertation, to do something else. Let yourself branch out a little bit and do something a little nuts. After a while, you will have recharged your batteries and go back to work. You’ll probably find that you actually work harder and smarter after taking a bit of a break than if you just keep pushing. You’ll also find that you have learned some skills and developed some talents that will help you later on in your career and your life.

'''8. Learn to teach.'''
Most of the emphasis in your Ph.D. program will be on researching, but that’s not all there is to being an academic. Many students and new faculty think that the tenure decision is made exclusively, or almost exclusively, on publications, but that is not always the case. At many schools, especially those not in the top tier, your abilities in the classroom will also factor heavily into your promotion and tenure decision. This is especially true with the AACSB’s recent focus on teaching quality, assessment, and ‘closing the loop.’ Colleges and departments going up for ‘maintenance of accreditation’ spend a great deal of time worrying about teaching quality, which makes it all the more important for new, untenured faculty to be at least competent in the classroom.
On top of the accreditation emphasis, teaching can be very rewarding for new faculty members. Notes from students, good teaching evaluations, or visits from prior students can provide you with the positive feedback you need to deal with the often negative feedback from research (rejections, tough reviewer comments, attacks during presentations, etc.). Positive feedback from teaching provides a fortification against those negative vibes and reinforces our original desire to get into academia in the first place.

Hopefully your chosen Ph.D. program will give you the opportunity to teach several classes while you work on your degree. While this teaching will take away time that you would like to spend on your own studies and work, don’t just write it off as wasted time. Instead, take the time to try out new ideas and skills in the classroom. Since most faculty, and even students, at Ph.D. granting institutions expect Ph.D. students to be mediocre teachers at best, they will be more forgiving of your mistakes than will your department chair and students once you become a professor. Most schools have one or two ‘master teachers,’ teachers that are everyone’s favorite despite the workload in their classes. Once you have identified these powerful teachers (who may or may not be tenure track faculty), try to find a way to learn from them. You can try sitting in on their classes or chatting with them about the problems you are having in your teaching. Most good teachers are happy to help you improve your teaching, especially when they notice that you are implementing the hints they have passed on. That’s the real secret: try what they tell you, go back and tell them how it went, and they will open up even more. It can be a very rewarding relationship that will make a world of difference as you work to become a college instructor yourself.

Be careful not to go too far in your teaching practice, however. Trying a few new things and watching your favorite teachers is a good thing. Spending too much time on teaching can slow you down in the process of completing your degree. You don’t want to do that. Take some time to work on your teaching, but make sure that most of your time and effort continues to go into your studies or your research. Learning to teach as a Ph.D. student is rewarding, but teaching for a real salary (after you have finished your degree) is even more rewarding!

'''9. Get to know the faculty and other Ph.D students in and outside your program.'''
There are many benefits to getting to know a lot of people. First, you will have a bigger chance to get on a project in progress if you know the people who are already working on it. Second, when it comes to presenting your papers, people you have developed a relationship with will be more willing to give you constructive feedback. Third, people who know you will be more willing to spread good words about you when you hit the job market. Don't be afraid to reach out. The academic community is very small and reputations can spread quickly.

'''10. Speak up in workshops.'''
Always carrying a good attitude and showing a desire to learn really will get you further than you think. Some international students tend to be more shy and be more quiet during workshop seminars or conferences ( I am no exception), and this is something that they need to work on. A well-rounded Ph.D student is not only hard-working and well-read, but also able to communicate well with others individually and publicly. Trying to be more out-going and participative in workshops or conferences will give people a good impression about you.

'''11. Beware of plagiarism.'''
Nothing ruins your career faster than cheating or plagiarism. There is only black and white in the world of cheating (you either cheat or didn't), but there tends to be some gray area in plagiarism. Be careful when you are working on a paper or a project for a class. You need to give full credit and cite correctly when ideas are taken from a paper or when they are very similar to the ideas of another paper. This is extremely important and should not be taken lightly. You might also get comments and advice from workshop participants who are helpful in making your second or third draft better. In this case, you must acknowledge their help by noting their names in the paper. You might think the person wouldn’t mind if you omitted their name--think again!

===Conclusion===
Life as a Ph.D. student is difficult; it is challenging; it is frustrating. But don’t allow that to keep you from trying or from bringing you down once you have begun. The rewards for completing your program are manifold. Not only will you get to teach and do research (both of which you will hopefully learn to enjoy), but you will also have a comfortable lifestyle, a good salary, and a very flexible schedule. In addition, there is nothing that can compare with that wonderful feeling of standing in front of a full auditorium and listening to your name being read while your advisor ‘hoods you’ and welcomes you into the select group of people who have completed their Ph.D.

The ideas and comments in this article are meant to provide you with some ideas to help you get through your program successfully. They aren’t meant to be a comprehensive list; not by a long shot. Anyone who has completed a Ph.D. has a list of those ideas and methods that worked for him or her, and all of those ideas and thoughts are just as valid as the ideas presented here. Everyone takes a slightly different path to successfully complete their Ph.D. program.

And that brings me to my very last bit of advice. You are beginning your Ph.D. program, make it whatever you want it to be. Learn to teach or focus solely on research; learn to do all sorts of research or just focus on the research that most interests you; start a million papers or just do your dissertation. It is your education, so focus on those things you want to get out of it. And then, as you finish up, find a few new Ph.D. students. Take them out to lunch and give them the ideas and the thoughts that worked for you, tell them how much you have learned and tell them not to get discouraged, build them up with all those things you have learned through your blood, sweat, and tears.

Then, enjoy a few minutes to yourself. Put on those fancy robes that you have now earned the right to wear and parade around in front of the mirror, or spend some time looking at that fancy frame with your degree in it. Better yet, introduce yourself to someone as “Dr. _________.” Other than the voices of your spouse and children, the first time you hear someone call you that will probably be the sweetest thing you have ever heard! And when all is said and done, that is success in a Ph.D. program.

==Other Useful Tips==

This is a question that is asked by every prospective Ph.D. student and there are many sources of advice. The best available advice on the internet is from fields other than accounting, but most of it applies to accounting. A list of helpful links and citations follow:
* [http://orgtheory.wordpress.com/grad-skool-rulz/ Orgtheory.net] has 21 blog posts describing "grad school rulz"
* [http://dinhvutrangngan.com/advice.html Ngan Dinh], of the Fulbright Economics Teaching Program Vietnam Program of the Harvard School of Government, compiled advice from top economists for young economists
* Getting the Most from Your Doctoral Program: Advice for the Ph.D. Student in Finance, by Frank Alpert and Thomas H. Eyssell, Journal of Financial Education, Fall 1995
* [[How do I prepare for comprehensive exams?]]

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|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[How do you succeed in a Ph.D. program?]]</small>
|}

What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?

2015-08-27T17:38:52Z

Michael Thomas: /* Course Comparison */

==Introduction==
Many students who enter the Ph.D. Prep Track [[Why I didn't get a Ph.D.|choose not to pursue]] doctoral studies for many reasons following completion of the MAcc Program at BYU. For that reason, some may wonder about the benefits of the Ph.D. Prep Track, which is an integral part of the Professional and Tax Routes at BYU, as compared with the more general approach taken by most students in the MAcc Program.

==Learning Outcomes==
BYU has published the expected learning outcomes for both the [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232667/Professional+Accountancy+MACC+/1039 professional] and [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232666/Tax+MACC+/1039_MAcc tax] stems.

==Course Comparison==
The official list of courses can be found on the [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/ Marriott School] website. The class requirements differ for the professional (auditing) stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/pro_acc_outline.pdf here]) and tax stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/tax_pro.pdf here]).

The following table displays required courses for completion of the MAcc Program and compares each specific option to the other available options in the program. This schedule is flexible and can be customized based on feedback from the Prep track coordinator and individual students. To help you determine what classes will help with each research methodology, some [[What classes should I take?|recommendations]] are offered on what classes to take beyond the basic Prep Track requirements. See the [[Main Page|Ph.D. prep track]] program coordinator to discuss specifics about courses.

<big>'''Course Comparison between the Tax and Professional Routes'''</big>

{|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''MSM Graduate Core'''||||||||||||
|-
| Finance||BUS M 520||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Operations Management||BUS M 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Organizational Behavior||BUS M 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Marketing Management||BUS M 550||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General SOA/Management'''||||||||||||
|-
| Money, Banking, & Business||ACC 453||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Strategic Management||BUS M 581||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Ethics, Business, & Society||BUS M 582||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">6.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">6.0</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Professional'''||||||||||||
|-
| Research Seminar||ACC 515||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Advanced Taxation||ACC 522||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| <small>Accounting Information Systems Risk and Control</small>||ACC 525||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Statement Auditing||ACC 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Managerial Accounting||ACC 531||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| <small>Advanced Professional Financial Accounting</small>||ACC 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Financial Statement Analysis||ACC 541||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Professional Accounting Elective 1||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Professional Accounting Elective 2||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Finance Elective||MBA 621-628||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 1||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 2||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">33.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Tax'''||||||||||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Accounting||ACC 503||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Advanced Taxation '''<u>OR</u>'''||ACC 522||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Research Methodology||ACC 523||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Special Problems in Federal Taxation||ACC 560||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Corporate Taxation I||ACC 561||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Corporate Taxation II||ACC 562||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Taxation of Partnerships||ACC 563||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| <small>Accounting Methods and Accounting for Income Taxes</small>||ACC 566||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Federal Income Taxation||MBA 602||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Elective 1||ACC 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Elective 2||ACC 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Elective 1 ||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Elective 2 ||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Elective 3 ||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">33.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Ph.D. Prep Courses'''||||||||||||
|-
| Introduction to Academic Research||ACC 516||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Academic Research Applications||ACC 517||<div style="text-align: center;">1.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Readings & Conference||ACC 591R||<div style="text-align: center;">2.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research I||STAT 511||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research II '''<u>OR</u>'''||STAT 512||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Advanced Econometrics||ECON 588||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistics for Economists||ECON 378||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Intermediate Price Theory I||ECON 380||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Intermediate Macroeconomics||ECON 381||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Introduction to Econometrics||ECON 388||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">24.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">24.0</div>

|-
| ||||||||||||
|-
| '''Total Credits'''||||||'''<div style="text-align: center;">54.0</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">54.0</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">54.0</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">54.0</div>'''
|-
|
|}

A couple notes about the table:
* Make sure to review the updated course list from the accounting department before adding classes to your schedule.
* The Ph.D. Prep Track is an integral part of each of the Professional and Tax Routes. The major differences as shown in the table are the substitution of certain professional and tax electives for additional courses in economics and statistics.
* Tax students may also choose between taking Advanced Taxation (Acc 522) and Tax Research Methodology (Acc 523).
----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?]]</small>
|}

What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?

2015-08-27T17:21:03Z

Michael Thomas: /* Course Comparison */

==Introduction==
Many students who enter the Ph.D. Prep Track [[Why I didn't get a Ph.D.|choose not to pursue]] doctoral studies for many reasons following completion of the MAcc Program at BYU. For that reason, some may wonder about the benefits of the Ph.D. Prep Track, which is an integral part of the Professional and Tax Routes at BYU, as compared with the more general approach taken by most students in the MAcc Program.

==Learning Outcomes==
BYU has published the expected learning outcomes for both the [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232667/Professional+Accountancy+MACC+/1039 professional] and [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232666/Tax+MACC+/1039_MAcc tax] stems.

==Course Comparison==
The official list of courses can be found on the [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/ Marriott School] website. The class requirements differ for the professional (auditing) stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/pro_acc_outline.pdf here]) and tax stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/tax_pro.pdf here]).

The following table displays required courses for completion of the MAcc Program and compares each specific option to the other available options in the program. This schedule is flexible and can be customized based on feedback from the Prep track coordinator and individual students. To help you determine what classes will help with each research methodology, some [[What classes should I take?|recommendations]] are offered on what classes to take beyond the basic Prep Track requirements. See the [[Main Page|Ph.D. prep track]] program coordinator to discuss specifics about courses.

<big>'''Course Comparison between the Tax and Professional Routes'''</big>

{|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''MSM Graduate Core'''||||||||||||
|-
| Finance||BUS M 520||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Operations Management||BUS M 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Organizational Behavior||BUS M 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Marketing Management||BUS M 550||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General SOA/Management'''||||||||||||
|-
| Money, Banking, & Business||ACC 453||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Strategic Management||BUS M 581||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Ethics, Business, & Society||BUS M 582||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Professional'''||||||||||||
|-
| Research Seminar||ACC 515||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| <small>Accounting Information Systems Risk and Control</small>||ACC 525||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Statement Auditing||ACC 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Managerial Accounting||ACC 531||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| <small>Advanced Professional Financial Accounting</small>||ACC 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Financial Statement Analysis||ACC 541||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Fraud Prevention & Detection||ACC 550||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Finance Elective||MBA 621-9||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 1||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 2 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 3 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">33.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Tax'''||||||||||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Accounting||ACC 503||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Advanced Taxation '''<u>OR</u>'''||ACC 522||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Research Methodology||ACC 523||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Special Problems in Federal Taxation||ACC 560||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Corporate Taxation I||ACC 561||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Corporate Taxation II||ACC 562||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Taxation of Partnerships||ACC 563||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| <small>Accounting Methods and Accounting for Income Taxes</small>||ACC 566||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Federal Income Taxation||MBA 602||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Elective 1||ACC 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Elective 2||ACC 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Elective 1 ||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Elective 2 ||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Elective 3 ||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">33.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Ph.D. Prep Courses'''||||||||||||
|-
| Introduction to Academic Research||ACC 516||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Academic Research Applications||ACC 517||<div style="text-align: center;">1.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Readings & Conference||ACC 591R||<div style="text-align: center;">2.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research I||STAT 511||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research II '''<u>OR</u>'''||STAT 512||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Advanced Econometrics||ECON 588||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistics for Economists||ECON 378||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Intermediate Price Theory I||ECON 380||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Intermediate Macroeconomics||ECON 381||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Introduction to Econometrics||ECON 388||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">24.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">24.0</div>

|-
| ||||||||||||
|-
| '''Total Credits'''||||||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''
|-
|
|}

A couple notes about the table:
* Make sure to review the updated course list from the accounting department before adding classes to your schedule.
* The Ph.D. Prep Track is an integral part of each of the Professional and Tax Routes. The major differences as shown in the table are the substitution of certain professional and tax electives for additional courses in economics and statistics.
* Tax students may also choose between taking Advanced Taxation (Acc 522) and Tax Research Methodology (Acc 523).
----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?]]</small>
|}

What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?

2015-08-27T16:25:29Z

Michael Thomas: /* Course Comparison */

==Introduction==
Many students who enter the Ph.D. Prep Track [[Why I didn't get a Ph.D.|choose not to pursue]] doctoral studies for many reasons following completion of the MAcc Program at BYU. For that reason, some may wonder about the benefits of the Ph.D. Prep Track, which is an integral part of the Professional and Tax Routes at BYU, as compared with the more general approach taken by most students in the MAcc Program.

==Learning Outcomes==
BYU has published the expected learning outcomes for both the [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232667/Professional+Accountancy+MACC+/1039 professional] and [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232666/Tax+MACC+/1039_MAcc tax] stems.

==Course Comparison==
The official list of courses can be found on the [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/ Marriott School] website. The class requirements differ for the professional (auditing) stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/pro_acc_outline.pdf here]) and tax stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/tax_pro.pdf here]).

The following table displays required courses for completion of the MAcc Program and compares each specific option to the other available options in the program. This schedule is flexible and can be customized based on feedback from the Prep track coordinator and individual students. To help you determine what classes will help with each research methodology, some [[What classes should I take?|recommendations]] are offered on what classes to take beyond the basic Prep Track requirements. See the [[Main Page|Ph.D. prep track]] program coordinator to discuss specifics about courses.

<big>'''Course Comparison between the Tax and Professional Routes'''</big>

{|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''MSM Graduate Core'''||||||||||||
|-
| Finance||MBA 520||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Operations Management||MBA 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Organizational Behavior||MBA 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Marketing Management||MBA 550||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Management Seminar||MBA 593R||<div style="text-align: center;">0.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Communications||MBA 509||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General SOA/Management'''||||||||||||
|-
| Money, Banking, & Business||Acc 453||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Strategic Management||MBA 581||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Ethics, Business, & Society||P Mgt 582||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">6.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">6.0</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Professional'''||||||||||||
|-
| Research Seminar||Acc 515||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Advanced Taxation||Acc 522||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Accounting Information Systems Risk and Control||Acc 525||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Statement Auditing||Acc 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Managerial Accounting||Acc 531||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Professional Financial Accounting||Acc 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Financial Statement Analysis||Acc 541||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Fraud Prevention & Detection||Acc 550||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Finance Elective||MBA 621-9||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 1||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 2 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 3 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">33.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Tax'''||||||||||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Accounting||Acc 503||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Advanced Taxation OR||Acc 522||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Research Methodology||Acc 523||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Special Problems in Federal Taxation||Acc 560||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Corporate Taxation I||Acc 561||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Corporate Taxation II||Acc 562||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Taxation of Partnerships||Acc 563||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Taxation of Estates, Gifts and Fiduciaries||Acc 564||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Federal Income Taxation||MBA 602||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Elective 1||Acc 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Elective 2||Acc 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Elective 1||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Elective 2 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Elective 3 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">33.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>

|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Ph.D. Prep Courses'''||||||||||||
|-
| Introduction to Academic Research||Acc 516||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Academic Research Applications||Acc 517||<div style="text-align: center;">1.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Readings & Conference||Acc 591R||<div style="text-align: center;">2.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research I||Stat 511||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research II OR||Stat 512||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| [[Econ 588: Econometrics|Econometrics]]||[[Econ 588: Econometrics|Econ 588]]||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||
|-
| Statistics for Economists||Econ 378||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Intermediate Price Theory I||Econ 380||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Intermediate Macroeconomics||Econ 381||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Introduction to Econometrics||Econ 388||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">24.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">24.0</div>

|-
| ||||||||||||
|-
| '''Total Credits'''||||||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''
|-
|
|}

A couple notes about the table:
* Make sure to review the updated course list from the accounting department before adding classes to your schedule.
* The Ph.D. Prep Track is an integral part of each of the Professional and Tax Routes. The major differences as shown in the table are the substitution of certain professional and tax electives for additional courses in economics and statistics.
* Tax students may also choose between taking Advanced Taxation (Acc 522) and Tax Research Methodology (Acc 523).
----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?]]</small>
|}

What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?

2015-08-27T16:22:29Z

Michael Thomas: /* Course Comparison */

==Introduction==
Many students who enter the Ph.D. Prep Track [[Why I didn't get a Ph.D.|choose not to pursue]] doctoral studies for many reasons following completion of the MAcc Program at BYU. For that reason, some may wonder about the benefits of the Ph.D. Prep Track, which is an integral part of the Professional and Tax Routes at BYU, as compared with the more general approach taken by most students in the MAcc Program.

==Learning Outcomes==
BYU has published the expected learning outcomes for both the [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232667/Professional+Accountancy+MACC+/1039 professional] and [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232666/Tax+MACC+/1039_MAcc tax] stems.

==Course Comparison==
The official list of courses can be found on the [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/ Marriott School] website. The class requirements differ for the professional (auditing) stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/pro_acc_outline.pdf here]) and tax stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/tax_pro.pdf here]).

The following table displays required courses for completion of the MAcc Program and compares each specific option to the other available options in the program. This schedule is flexible and can be customized based on feedback from the Prep track coordinator and individual students. To help you determine what classes will help with each research methodology, some [[What classes should I take?|recommendations]] are offered on what classes to take beyond the basic Prep Track requirements. See the [[Main Page|Ph.D. prep track]] program coordinator to discuss specifics about courses.

<big>'''Course Comparison between the Tax and Professional Routes'''</big>

{|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''MSM Graduate Core'''||||||||||||
|-
| Finance||MBA 520||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Operations Management||MBA 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Organizational Behavior||MBA 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Marketing Management||MBA 550||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Management Seminar||MBA 593R||<div style="text-align: center;">0.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Communications||MBA 509||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>
|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General SOA/Management'''||||||||||||
|-
| Money, Banking, & Business||Acc 453||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Strategic Management||MBA 581||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Ethics, Business, & Society||P Mgt 582||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">6.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">9.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">6.0</div>
|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Professional'''||||||||||||
|-
| Research Seminar||Acc 515||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Advanced Taxation||Acc 522||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Accounting Information Systems Risk and Control||Acc 525||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Statement Auditing||Acc 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Managerial Accounting||Acc 531||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Advanced Professional Financial Accounting||Acc 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Financial Statement Analysis||Acc 541||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||
|-
| Fraud Prevention & Detection||Acc 550||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Finance Elective||MBA 621-9||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 1||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 2 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| Elective 3 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||||
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">33.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>
|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Tax'''||||||||||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Accounting||Acc 503||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Advanced Taxation OR||Acc 522||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Research Methodology||Acc 523||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Special Problems in Federal Taxation||Acc 560||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Corporate Taxation I||Acc 561||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Corporate Taxation II||Acc 562||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Taxation of Partnerships||Acc 563||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Taxation of Estates, Gifts and Fiduciaries||Acc 564||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Federal Income Taxation||MBA 602||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Elective 1||Acc 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Tax Elective 2||Acc 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Elective 1||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Elective 2 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Elective 3 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">33.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">12.0</div>
|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Ph.D. Prep Courses'''||||||||||||
|-
| Introduction to Academic Research||Acc 516||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Academic Research Applications||Acc 517||<div style="text-align: center;">1.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Readings & Conference||Acc 591R||<div style="text-align: center;">2.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research I||Stat 511||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research II OR||Stat 512||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| [[Econ 588: Econometrics|Econometrics]]||[[Econ 588: Econometrics|Econ 588]]||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||
|-
| Statistics for Economists||Econ 378||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Intermediate Price Theory I||Econ 380||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Intermediate Macroeconomics||Econ 381||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Introduction to Econometrics||Econ 388||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">24.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">-</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">24.0</div>
|-
| ||||||||||||
|-
| '''Total Credits'''||||||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''||'''<div style="text-align: center;">57.5</div>'''
|-
|
|}

A couple notes about the table:
* Make sure to review the updated course list from the accounting department before adding classes to your schedule.
* The Ph.D. Prep Track is an integral part of each of the Professional and Tax Routes. The major differences as shown in the table are the substitution of certain professional and tax electives for additional courses in economics and statistics.
* Tax students may also choose between taking Advanced Taxation (Acc 522) and Tax Research Methodology (Acc 523).
----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?]]</small>
|}

What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?

2015-08-27T16:04:33Z

Michael Thomas: /* Course Comparison */

==Introduction==
Many students who enter the Ph.D. Prep Track [[Why I didn't get a Ph.D.|choose not to pursue]] doctoral studies for many reasons following completion of the MAcc Program at BYU. For that reason, some may wonder about the benefits of the Ph.D. Prep Track, which is an integral part of the Professional and Tax Routes at BYU, as compared with the more general approach taken by most students in the MAcc Program.

==Learning Outcomes==
BYU has published the expected learning outcomes for both the [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232667/Professional+Accountancy+MACC+/1039 professional] and [https://learningoutcomes.byu.edu/Courses/program-courses/232666/Tax+MACC+/1039_MAcc tax] stems.

==Course Comparison==
The official list of courses can be found on the [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/ Marriott School] website. The class requirements differ for the professional (auditing) stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/pro_acc_outline.pdf here]) and tax stem students (requirements listed [http://marriottschool.byu.edu/macc/pdf/tax_pro.pdf here]).

The following table displays required courses for completion of the MAcc Program and compares each specific option to the other available options in the program. This schedule is flexible and can be customized based on feedback from the Prep track coordinator and individual students. To help you determine what classes will help with each research methodology, some [[What classes should I take?|recommendations]] are offered on what classes to take beyond the basic Prep Track requirements. See the [[Main Page|Ph.D. prep track]] program coordinator to discuss specifics about courses.

<big>'''Course Comparison between the Tax and Professional Routes'''</big>

{|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''MSM Graduate Core'''||||||||||||
|-
| Finance||MBA 520||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Operations Management||MBA 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Organizational Behavior||MBA 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Marketing Management||MBA 550||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Management Seminar||MBA 593R||<div style="text-align: center;">0.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Communications||MBA 509||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| ||||||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">15.5</div>
|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General SOA/Management'''||||||||||||
|-
| Money, Banking, & Business||Acc 453||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||
|-
| Strategic Management||MBA 581||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| Ethics, Business, & Society||P Mgt 582||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>||<div style="text-align: center;">x</div>
|-
| |||||| 9.0 || 6.0 || 9.0 || 6.0
|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Professional'''||||||||||||
|-
| Research Seminar||Acc 515||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||||||
|-
| Advanced Taxation||Acc 522||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||||||
|-
| Accounting Information Systems Risk and Control||Acc 525||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||x||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Statement Auditing||Acc 530||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||x||||
|-
| Advanced Managerial Accounting||Acc 531||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||x||x||||
|-
| Advanced Professional Financial Accounting||Acc 540||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||x||||
|-
| Financial Statement Analysis||Acc 541||<div style="text-align: center;">1.5</div>||x||x||||
|-
| Fraud Prevention & Detection||Acc 550||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||||||
|-
| Finance Elective||MBA 621-9||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||||||
|-
| Elective 1||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||||||
|-
| Elective 2 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||||||
|-
| Elective 3 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||x||||||
|-
| |||||| 33.0 || 12.0 || - || -
|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Accounting - Tax'''||||||||||||
|-
| Advanced Financial Accounting||Acc 503||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| Advanced Taxation OR||Acc 522||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||||| x
|-
| Tax Research Methodology||Acc 523||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| Special Problems in Federal Taxation||Acc 560||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| Corporate Taxation I||Acc 561||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| Corporate Taxation II||Acc 562||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| Taxation of Partnerships||Acc 563||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| Taxation of Estates, Gifts and Fiduciaries||Acc 564||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| Federal Income Taxation||MBA 602||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||||| x
|-
| Tax Elective 1||Acc 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x || x
|-
| Tax Elective 2||Acc 5xx||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||||| x
|-
| Elective 1||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| Elective 2 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| Elective 3 (Non-Accounting)||||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>|||||| x ||
|-
| |||||| - || - || 33.0 || 12.0
|-
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Course'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|''' Credits'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pro Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Prof'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Tax Route'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Ph.D. Tax'''
|-
| '''General Ph.D. Prep Courses'''||||||||||||
|-
| Introduction to Academic Research||Acc 516||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||x||||x
|-
| Academic Research Applications||Acc 517||<div style="text-align: center;">1.0</div>||||x||||x
|-
| Readings & Conference||Acc 591R||<div style="text-align: center;">2.0</div>||||x||||x
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research I||Stat 511||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||x||||x
|-
| Statistical Methods for Research II OR||Stat 512||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||x||||x
|-
| [[Econ 588: Econometrics|Econometrics]]||[[Econ 588: Econometrics|Econ 588]]||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||||||
|-
| Statistics for Economists||Econ 378||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||x||||x
|-
| Intermediate Price Theory I||Econ 380||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||x||||x
|-
| Intermediate Macroeconomics||Econ 381||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||x||||x
|-
| Introduction to Econometrics||Econ 388||<div style="text-align: center;">3.0</div>||||x||||x
|-
| |||||| - || 24.0 || - || 24.0
|-
| ||||||||||||
|-
| '''Total Credits'''|||||| 57.5 || 57.5 || 57.5 || 57.5
|-
|
|}

A couple notes about the table:
* Make sure to review the updated course list from the accounting department before adding classes to your schedule.
* The Ph.D. Prep Track is an integral part of each of the Professional and Tax Routes. The major differences as shown in the table are the substitution of certain professional and tax electives for additional courses in economics and statistics.
* Tax students may also choose between taking Advanced Taxation (Acc 522) and Tax Research Methodology (Acc 523).
----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[Ph.D. Prep Track and Doctoral Student Q&A]] ► [[What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?]]</small>
|}

What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?

2015-08-27T15:41:29Z

Michael Thomas: /* Course Comparison */

What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?

2015-08-27T15:37:57Z

Michael Thomas:

What will I learn in the Prep Track that I won't learn elsewhere?

2015-08-27T15:35:48Z

Michael Thomas: /* Learning Outcomes */

What is accounting research?

2015-08-26T20:35:18Z

Michael Thomas: /* Tax */

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<videoflash>bSxHph5ZdLc|400|350|</videoflash>
|-
| style="text-align: left;" |
|}
==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of accounting information systems research see Mennecke, Terando, Janvrin and Dilla (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1022064 here])
*For an example of experimental control research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental support systems research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of audit fee research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For an example of archival financial reporting research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For an example of capital markets research in accounting see Healy, and Palepu (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258514 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival empirical research on accounting choice see Bamber, Jiang, and Wang (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312904 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental ethics research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of archival decision-making research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])
*For an example of a field study in tax lobbying see Barrick and Alexander (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500959 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
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What is accounting research?

2015-08-26T20:27:53Z

Michael Thomas: /* Managerial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of accounting information systems research see Mennecke, Terando, Janvrin and Dilla (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1022064 here])
*For an example of experimental control research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental support systems research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of audit fee research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For an example of archival financial reporting research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For an example of capital markets research in accounting see Healy, and Palepu (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258514 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival empirical research on accounting choice see Bamber, Jiang, and Wang (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312904 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental ethics research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])
*For an example of archival decision-making research in Managerial Accounting see Christ, Masli, Sharp, and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946518 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
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! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
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What is accounting research?

2015-08-26T20:24:11Z

Michael Thomas: /* Managerial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of accounting information systems research see Mennecke, Terando, Janvrin and Dilla (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1022064 here])
*For an example of experimental control research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental support systems research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of audit fee research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For an example of archival financial reporting research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For an example of capital markets research in accounting see Healy, and Palepu (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258514 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival empirical research on accounting choice see Bamber, Jiang, and Wang (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312904 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of field study research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental ethics research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

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What is accounting research?

2015-08-26T20:19:23Z

Michael Thomas: /* Managerial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of accounting information systems research see Mennecke, Terando, Janvrin and Dilla (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1022064 here])
*For an example of experimental control research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental support systems research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of audit fee research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For an example of archival financial reporting research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For an example of capital markets research in accounting see Healy, and Palepu (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258514 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival empirical research on accounting choice see Bamber, Jiang, and Wang (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312904 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])
*For an example of experimental ethics research in Managerial Accounting see Emett, Guymon, Tayler, and Young (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2235408 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
|}

What is accounting research?

2015-08-26T20:15:03Z

Michael Thomas: /* Managerial */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of accounting information systems research see Mennecke, Terando, Janvrin and Dilla (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1022064 here])
*For an example of experimental control research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental support systems research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of audit fee research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For an example of archival financial reporting research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For an example of capital markets research in accounting see Healy, and Palepu (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258514 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival empirical research on accounting choice see Bamber, Jiang, and Wang (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312904 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

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What is accounting research?

2015-08-26T20:14:23Z

Michael Thomas: /* Accounting Information Systems (AIS) */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of accounting information systems research see Mennecke, Terando, Janvrin and Dilla (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1022064 here])
*For an example of experimental control research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])
*For an example of experimental support systems research see Myers, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2015, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2334463 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of audit fee research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For an example of archival financial reporting research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For an example of capital markets research in accounting see Healy, and Palepu (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258514 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival empirical research on accounting choice see Bamber, Jiang, and Wang (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312904 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
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What is accounting research?

2015-08-26T20:09:54Z

Michael Thomas: /* Accounting Information Systems (AIS) */

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==Introduction==
[[File:Business_Papers.jpg|230 px|left|Any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research.]]
Accounting research is hard to define because it has shifted over time. As a rough overview, early accounting research (pre-1960s) was mostly normative (i.e., arguing for the “correct” accounting treatment, or what should be). With the advent of the Journal of Accounting Research, advances in finance such as the efficient market hypothesis, creation of large data sets and the statistical abilities to analyze them (i.e., computers), and the publication of Ball and Brown’s seminal work in 1968, accounting research moved into positive research (i.e., examining what is rather than what should be). Although this change has had its critics, it has resulted in a significant increase in research output (and many new journals).

A cynical definition of research is: any paper that cites a lot of other accounting papers must be accounting research. This “quick and dirty” definition restricts accounting research to topics and methodologies that are well established in the literature; it is “safe” but somewhat limiting. More rigorously, Oler, Oler, and Skousen (2009) attempt to characterize accounting research by looking at the topics, research methodologies, and citations made by papers published in a set of six top accounting journals (AOS, CAR, JAE, JAR, RAST, and TAR). Their work can be criticized, though, because they do not consider all accounting journals, and because their categorizations of topics (6 of them) and research methodologies (7 of them) are broad. In spite of shortcomings, their paper appears to be the first that attempts to characterize and define accounting research, which they define as follows: “accounting research is research into the effect of economic events on the process of summarizing, analyzing, verifying, and reporting standardized financial information, and on the effects of reported information on economic events.”

Professors typically will choose a subject area and a methodology in which to focus their efforts. Subject areas include the topical areas considered under the umbrella term "accounting." These include information systems, auditing and assurance, corporate governance, financial, forensic, managerial, and tax.

==General Overview of Accounting Research==
“Academic research looks at how accounting affects the world around us and
how the world affects accounting.” [http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter'']

Accounting research plays an essential part in creating new knowledge. The hard sciences have produced models of research and testing that can be used and applied over many disciplines including accounting research. Using these models along with evidence such as financial statements, stock prices, surveys, experiments, computer simulations, and mathematical proofs, we can gain a scientific perspective and basis for the following:

*Deciding and implementing new accounting or auditing standards
*Presenting unusual economic transactions in the financial statements
*Learning how new tax laws impact clients and employers
*Discerning how the accounting profession affects the capital markets through academic accounting research

Researchers perform two main types of research, positive and normative.

*Positive research is the branch of academic research in accounting that seeks to explain and predict actual accounting practices.
*Normative research, in contrast, seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards.

[[File:Stairs_up.png|right|300 px|One Step at a Time]]
Researchers use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships. By using the scientific method, the researcher has a systematic model that enables documentation of their results. The more specific the researcher is in documenting their methods, the better others will be able to follow and repeat their experiment.

'''Scientific Method:'''

*'''Observation:''' As with most research, accounting research begins with the researcher making an observation, seeing a potential pattern, or wondering how an action or event may affect a future action or event.
*'''Develop theory:''' The researcher then uses these observations to develop a theory or an explanation of might be causing these actions or events.
*'''Background research:''' Once the researcher finds an interest and develops a theory, background research on this theory is important. The background research is to help the researcher discover similar past theories, current and alternative theories, what evidence has been brought forth and tests performed. This research will save the researcher a great deal of time and guide their research to test a new aspect or help resolve areas of disagreement.
*'''Use theory to develop hypothesis:''' After this background research is conducted and existing theories discerned, the researcher will use their theory to create a specific hypothesis. This hypothesis should focus on an untested area or area of disagreement. Additionally, the hypothesis should make a specific prediction about how an action or condition will affect other actions or conditions.
*'''Test if hypothesis is correct:''' With a hypothesis developed, the researcher needs to identify sources of data and design tests to examine the hypothesis. The design of the tests should address the following:
**How well the study captures a cause-and-effect relationship;
**How well the variables used in a study capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis;
**How well the results from a study can be applied to other settings
*'''Examine test results:''' Once the tests have been designed, operated and data collected, the next step is to use statistical methods to compare the actual results with the hypothesized results and determine if there is significant evidence to confirm the hypothesis.
*'''Confirm or disconfirm theory:''' After the evidence has been examined and sensitivity analysis ran, the researcher can then confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis and theory the hypothesis was derived from.

==Accounting Research Topical Areas==
[[File:Man_Standing_on_Beach.jpg|right|300 px|Inspiration]]
The following definition of research come from a research paper by [[Coyne, Joshua|Coyne]], [[Summers, Scott|Summers]], [[Williams, Brady|Williams]], and [[Wood, David|Wood]] (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1337755 here]).

===Accounting Information Systems (AIS)===
Studies which address issues related to the systems and the users of systems that collect, store, and generate accounting information. Users are defined broadly to include those involved in collection, storage, or use of accounting information or even the implementation of the system. These systems may be electronic or not. Research streams include, but are not limited to design science, ontological investigations, expert systems, decision aides, support systems, processing assurance, security, controls, system usability, and system performance.

*For an example of accounting information systems research see Mennecke, Terando, Janvrin and Dilla (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1022064 here])
*For an example of experimental control research see Christ, Emmett, Summers and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489918 here])

===Auditing===
Studies in which the topical content involves an audit topic. These studies vary widely and include, but are not limited to, the study of the audit environment—external and internal, auditor decision making, auditor independence, the effects of auditing on the financial reporting process, and auditor fees.

*For a summary of audit fee research see Hay, Knechel, and Wong (2006, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=512642 here])
*For a review of archival audit research see DeFond and Zhang (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2411228 here])
*For an example of audit fee research see Prawitt, Sharp, and Wood (2011, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1034208 here])
*For an example of archival audit research see Gul, Wu, and Yang (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1888424 here])
*For an example of experimental audit research see Glover, Prawitt, and Wood (2007, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991803 here])

===Financial===
Studies that address the topical content of financial accounting, capital markets, and decision making based on financial accounting information.

*For a review of the financial reporting research see Beyer, Cohen, Lys, and Walther (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483227 here])
*For an example of archival financial reporting research see Atwood, Drake, Myers, and Myers (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1557406 here])
*For a review of the capital markets research in accounting see Kothari (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235798 here])
*For an example of capital markets research in accounting see Healy, and Palepu (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258514 here])
*For a review of empirical research on accounting choice see Fields, Lys, and Vincent (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258519 here])
*For an example of experimental empirical research on accounting choice see Burton, Starliper, Summers and Wood (2014, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162611 here])
*For an example of archival empirical research on accounting choice see Bamber, Jiang, and Wang (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312904 here])

===Managerial===
Studies that examine issues regarding budgeting, compensation, decision-making within an enterprise, incentives, and the allocation of resources within an enterprise.

*For a review of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Ittner and Larcker (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235797 here])
*For an example of empirical research in Managerial Accounting see Presslee, Vance, and Webb (2013, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656517 here])

===Tax===
Studies that examine issues related to taxpayer decision-making, tax allocations, tax computations, structuring of accounting transactions to meet tax goals, tax incentives, or market reactions to tax disclosures.

*For a review of tax research see Hanlon and Heitzman (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1476561 here]) and Shackelford and Shevlin (2001, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=235796 here])
*For a review of research in accounting of income taxes see Graham, Raedy, and Shackelford (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1312005 here])
*For a review of empirical tax research see Maydew (2000, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=258569 here])

===Other Topical Areas===
Studies that do not fit into one of the other topical areas. The topical areas in these studies vary significantly and include such things as education, methodologies, law, psychology, history, the accounting profession, work environment, etc.

==Accounting Research Methodologies==
[[File:Pen_and_Paper.png|230 px|left|Research]]
A researcher will select a methodology to determine how the research is to be conducted. There are three main methodologies for research in accounting: [[archival]], [[analytical]], and [[experimental]].

One thing to avoid when discussing methodologies is to refer to one of the methods as "empirical" to differentiate from other methods. This is most often done by archival researchers who refer to their research as empirical and not to include experimental research under the "empirical umbrella." Empirical research is research that is verifiable based on observation or experimentation; thus, archival and experimental research are both empirical in nature.

===Analytical===
Researchers who utilize analytical methods base analysis and conclusions on formally modeling theories or substantiated ideas in mathematical terms. These analytical studies use math to predict, explain, or give substance to theory.

*For a recent example of analytical research in accounting, see Gao (2010, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1156407 here])

===Archival===
Researchers who utilize archival methods base analysis and conclusions on objective data collected from repositories of third parties. Also included are studies in which the researchers collected the data and in which the data has objective amounts such as net income, sales, fees, etc.

*For a recent example of archival research in accounting, see Ball and Shivakumar (2008, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1105228 here])

===Experimental===
Researchers who utilize experimental methods base analysis and conclusions on data the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects. Usually these studies employed random assignment; however, if the researcher selected different populations in an attempt to “manipulate” a variable, we also included these as experimental in nature (e.g., participants of different experience levels were selected for participation). Experimental research can include analyzing both economic and behavioral factors.

*For a recent example of experimental research in accounting, see Magilke, Mayhew, and Pike (2009, available [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1097714 here])

===Other Research Methodologies===
Studies that did not fit into one of the other methodological categories. The methodologies in these studies vary significantly and include such things as surveys, case studies, field studies, simulations, persuasive arguments, etc.



==Skills necessary to be a successful researcher==
Although there have been great discoveries made by accident that have changed the great paradigms of knowledge, academic research and the creation of knowledge is not an event left to chance. Academic research comes from mastering of skills that enable the researcher to carry out research processes that will contribute and progress the current accepted knowledge base and industry practices and open up new ideas and areas of research to follow.

Some of the skills necessary to become a successful researcher include the following:

* '''The ability to know and stay abreast of current work within your field of research. '''
:Staying abreast of the research being performed and the publication of such work, is important as you further your own research, discover new questions and problems and contribute to your fellow researchers. Being involved with workshops and peer reviews, as well as working with fellow professors and reading the publications in the peer journals are some ways in which to stay abreast of the current work in the industry. A listing of top journals can be found at [http://www.byuaccounting.net/tenure/journalsincluded.php Accounting Journals]
* '''The ability to understand and recognize research problems.'''
:Researchers need not only stay abreast of current research being performed and published, they also need to understand and recognize difficulties in performing their own research or that of research performed by others.
* '''The ability to understand research content.'''
:The ability to read and understand the content of research articles is an important skill for academics and practitioners alike. Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter have a great list of hints to reading a research paper in their article ''[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students]''. Read part of it [[Reading Research Tips|here]].
[[File:Working_Together.jpg|235 px|right|Making Contributions]]
* '''The ability to discover where you can make a contribution, and to be able to evaluate and re-evaluate your contribution.'''
:The ability to discern a topic that will add knowledge to the field and trigger your interests is a great strength. Additionally, being able to evaluate the causality, strength, and validity of your research is important, not only when initially writing it, but to return and re-evaluate later and see if it needs to be edited or expanded.
* '''The ability to master appropriate experimental, mathematical, and computational research skills.'''
:It is necessary to build a strong base of mathematical and statistical tools to be able to draw on and enable you to build experiments that have good construct and internal validity.
* '''The ability to think critically and analytically.'''
:As you perform research, the ability to examine assumptions, assess evidence, discern hidden values, and evaluate the conclusion will be greatly utilized. Additionally, the ability to break a concept or paradigm into its constituent parts and then study the parts and find and evaluate the relationships between those parts is also a skill that will further your research goals.
* '''The ability to formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals and time-specific deadlines.'''
* '''The ability to follow good research practices.'''
:Being able to develop experiments or studies that are built on good solid research practices will strengthen the research you do and lend credibility to your work that fellow users can rely on.
* '''The ability to document and report your work.'''
:After the data is gathered and analyzed and conclusions are developed and confirmed, the researcher needs the ability to effectively communicate their work in a paper such as a thesis paper. The documenting of others who have worked in similar areas, contributed to your work, or you have used to further your research is important.
* '''The ability to communicate and defend a coherent argument to interested parties.'''
:Effective communication includes not only written papers, but the ability to address and defend your work in a public setting that includes fellow researchers and practitioners. To take criticism with a view to improve your work and strengthen the field is desirable.
* '''The ability to critically review the worth of your own work and the works of other researchers.'''
:A researcher needs to be able to critically review their own work as well as the work of others and assess the strengths and weaknesses of it. Determine if there is a causal relationship and to assess the various types of validity. See if there is strong enough internal validity – the strength of the controlled experiment. Evaluate the construct validity – is what is being measured actually capture the ideas and events in the hypothesis. Is there good statistical conclusion validity – when everything else is in place, is there strong enough evidence to prove an actual difference. And finally external validity, now that we have proven that this is valid in this situation, how does it transfer to other situations and other subjects. These are a few of the concepts to analyze the strength of your own work as well as the strength of your fellow researchers work.

Information for these key points and further information on research skills can be found at:

[http://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html ''Guidelines on PhD Research and Supervision''], Professor Roberto Cipolla, University of Cambridge;

[http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/2014 ''Research Skills Required by PhD Students''], Cloudworks;

[http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/Vol6/Reading_and_Understanding_Academic_Research.pdf ''Reading and Understanding Academic Research in Accounting: A Guide for Students''], Teresa P. Gordon and Jason C. Porter, University of Idaho.

==How accounting research can make a difference in the world==

* Affect practice (usually high level decision makers, through textbooks)
* Mentor researchers' thinking who then change world through consulting, professional service, teaching
* Affect standard setters

----
{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;"
|-align="center"
! style="background:#fafaFe; color:black; height: 20px" | <small>[[Main Page]] ► [[What is accounting research?]]</small>
|}